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M75 
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Volume XX July, 1920 Number 2 

BULLETIN NO. 13 

OF 

The New York State College of Forestry 

AT 

SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY 



Forestry for the Private Owner 

BY 
FREDERICK FRANKLIN MOON 

Professor of Forest Engineering 

AND 

HAROLD CAHILL BELYEA 

Assistant Professor of Forest Engineering 




Published Quarterly by the University, Syracuse, New York 
Entered at the Post Office at Syracuse as second-class mall matter 



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Volume XX 



July, 1920 

BULLETIN NO. 13 



Number 2 



OF 



The New York State College of Forestry 



AT 



SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY 

I) 



Forestry for the Private Owner 

BY 
FREDERICK FRANKLIN MOON 

Professor of Forest Engineering 

AND 
HAROLD CAHILL BELYEA 

Assistant Professor of Forest Engineering 




Published Quarterly by the University, Syracuse, New York 
Entered at the Post Office at Syracuse as second-class mall matter 



Mis 



TRUSTEES 

OF 

THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE -OF FORESTRY 



Ex-Officio 

Dr. James R. Day, Chancellor Syracuse University 

Dr. John Huston Finley, Commissioner of Educa- 
tion Albany, N. Y. 

Hon. George D. Pratt, Conservation Commissioner. New York City 

Hon. Harry Walker, Lieutenant-Governor Binghamton, N". Y. 

Appointed by the Governor 

Hon. Alexander T. Brown Syracuse, N. Y. 

Hon. John R. Clancy k Syracuse, N. Y. 

Hon. Harold D. Cornwall Lowville, N. Y. 

Hon. George W. Driscoll Syracuse, N. Y. 

Hon. C C. Burns Watertown, N. Y. 

Hon. William H. Kelley Syracuse, N. Y. 

Hon. Lours Marshall New York City 

Mr. Edward H. O'Hara Syracuse, N. Y. 

Hon. H. P. Gould Glens Falls, N. Y. 

Officers of the Board 

Hon. Louis Marshall President. 

Hon. John R. Clancy. Vice-President 




lii] 

■Bqg»MgNT« DIVISION 



FACULTY OF THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY 
S3 AT SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY 



JAMES ROSCOE DAY, S. T. D., D. C. L., LL. D., 

Chancellor of the University. 

FREDERICK FRANKLIN" MOON", B. A., 1901 (Amherst) ; M. F., 1909 

(Yale), 
Bean of the College; Professor of Silviculture. 

MAULSBY WILLET BLACKMAN, A. B., 1901 (Kansas) ; Ph. D., 1905 

( Harvard ) , 
Professor of Forest Entomology. 

EDWARD F. MCCARTHY, B. S., 1911; M. S. F., 1916 (Michigan), 
Professor of Forest Utilization. 

LEIGH H. PENNINGTON, B. S., 1907; Ph. D., 1909 (Michigan), 
Professor of Forest Pathology. 

JOHN WALLACE STEPHEN, B. A., 1907; M. S. F., 1909 (Michigan); 

M. Pd., 1915 (Michigan Normal College), 

Professor of Silviculture. 

CHARLES CHRISTOPHER ADAMS, B. S., 1896 (Illinois Wesleyan) ; 
M. S., 1899 (Harvard) ; Ph. D., 1908 (Chicago) ; Sc. D., 1920 (Illinois 

Wesleyan ) , 
Professor of Forest Zoology; Director of The Roosevelt Wild Life Forest 
Experiment Station. 

HARRY P. BROWN, A. B., 1909; A. M., 1910; Ph. D., 1914 (Cornell 

University) , 
Professor of Wood Technology. 

ROBERT CRAIG, Jr., M. S. F., 1910 (Michigan), 
Director and Professor of Forestry at the New York State Banger School. 

LAURIE D. COX, A. B., 1903 (Acadia College) ; S. B. in Landscape 

Architecture 1908 (Harvard), 

Professor of Landscape Engineering. 

HENRY R. FRANCIS, B. S., 1910 (Massachusetts Agricultural College), 
Professor of Forest Recreation 

LOUIS E. WISE, A. B., 1907; Ph. D., 19,11 (Columbia), 
Professor of Forest Chemistry. 

WARREN B. BULLOCK, A. B., 1899 (Laurence College), 
Professor of Forest Extension. 

[ iii ] 



iv ' Faculty 

EUSSELL T. GHEEN, B. S., 1912 (Pennsylvania State College) ; M. F., 

1914 (New York State College of Forestry), 

Professor of Forest Extension. 

THOMAS LEROY HANKINSON, B. S., 1898 (Michigan Agricultural Col- 
lege) ; B. S., 1900 (Cornell University), 
Research Professor of Forest Ichthyology. 

REUBEN PARKER PRITCHARD, B. S., 1907 (Dartmouth) ; M. F., 1909 

(Yale), 
Professor of Silviculture. 

CARL JOHN DRAKE, B. S., B. Ped., 1912 (Baldwin- Wallace) ; A. M., 1914 

( Ohio State University ) , 

Professor of Forest Entomology. 

CLARENCE EARL LIBBY, B. S. in Chemical Engineering 1916 (Univer- 
sity of Maine), 
Professor of Paper and Pulp Chemistry. 

ALFRED HUBERT WILLIAM POVAH, A. B., 1912; Ph. D., 1916 

( Michigan ) , 

Assistant Professor of Forest Botany. 

HIRAM LEROY HENDERSON, B. S., 1915 (Michigan), 
Assistant Professor of Forest Utilization. 

CARL CHESWELL FORSAITH, A. B., 1913 (Dartmouth); A. M., 1914; 

Ph. D., 1917 (Harvard), 

Assistant Professor of Wood Technology. 

HAROLD CAHILL BELYEA, B. A., 1908; M. A., 1911 (Mount Allison 
University) ; B. Sc. F., 1911 (University of New Brunswick) ; M. F., 
1916 (Yale), 

Assistant Professor of Forest Engineering. 

JAMES F. DUBUAR, A. B., 1914; M. S. F., 1915 (Michigan), 
Assistant Professor of Forestry at the New York State Ranger School. 

ALLAN F. ARNOLD (Landscape Architecture, Harvard 1904-1908), 
Assistant Professor of Forest Extension. 

WILFRED E. SANDERSON, B\ S., 1917 (New York State College of 

Forestry), 

Assistant Professor of Forest Extension and Director of Sophomore 

Summer Camp. 

ALVIN GOODNOW WHITNEY, A. B., 1907 (Dartmouth), 
Assistant Research Professor of Forest Zoology. 

RAYMOND J. HOYLE, B. S., 1907 (New York State College of Forestry), 
Instructor in Forest Utilization. 



Faculty 

ALVIN G. SMITH, B. S., 1915 (New York State College of Forestry), 

Field Assistant in Forest Investigations ; in charge of Syracuse Forest 

Experiment Station at Syraucse. 

GEOEGE R. JOHNSTONE, B. S. (Illinois); M. S. (Chicago), 
Instructor in Forest Botany. 

I. LAURANCE LEE, B. S., 1915; M. F., 1919 (Yale), 
Instructor in Wood Technology. 

DON M. BENEDICT, B. S., 1917 (Michigan), 
Assistant in Botany. 

WILFORD A. DENCE, B. S., 1919 (New York State College of Forestry) 
Research Assistant in Zoology. 

RUBY W. HOWE, 

Secretary to the Dean. 

WALTER W. CHIPMAN, B. S., 1893; A. M., 1904 (Wabash College), 
Assistant Treasurer. 

JOHN W. WEBBER, 
Bookkeeper. 

ELEANOR CHURCH, B. L. E., 1916 (Syracuse University), 
Librarian. 

EVALINA M. MARTIN, B. L. E., 1920 (Syracuse University), 
Reference Librarian. 



INDEX 



Page 

FOBEWOED. , 1-2 

Chaptee 1: 

Introduction 3-14 

What is Forestry? : 3 

The Need of Forestry 4 

I. On lands unsuited to agriculture 4 

II. Forest crops are indispensable to civilization .....". 4 

III. The indirect influences of the forest 5 

IV. The value of forests to the individual owner 8 

Possibilities of Forestry in New York 10 

Original Forests 11 

Present Conditions 11 

Remedies 13 

Chaptee II: 

The Woodlot 15-22 

Importance 15 

Woodlot Problems 16 

Possibilities 19 

Chaptee III: 

Tending the Woodlot 23-58 

General 23 

Soil ■. 23 

Light 24 

Moisture 24 

Stocking. . . . 25 

Important New York Trees 27 

The Softwoods: 

White pine 27 

Red spruce 28 

Hemlock 28 

Balsam fir 28 

White cedar 28 

Red cedar 29 

The Hardwoods: 

White oak 29 

Red oak 29 

Black oak 29 

Chestnut 30 

Hard maple 30 

Red maple 30 

Yellow birch 31 

Beech 31 

Basswood 31 

Butternut 32 

Rock Elm 32 

Hickorv 32 

White 'ash 32 

[vii] 



viii Index 

Chapter III — {Continued) : 

Tending the Woodlot — ( Continued ) : Pa S e 

Desirability of Different Species 33 

Growth 34 

Appearance of Individual Trees 36 

Soil Conditions -36 

Life History of a Forest 37 

Forest Protection 39 

Fire 40 

Fire Damage > 40 

Insects 41 

Remedies 43 

Sap-sucking Insects 43 

Borers ; 43 

Fungus Diseases 44 

Grazing 46 

Wind, Snow and Ice 46 

Starting the Woodlot 47 

Natural Regeneration 47 

Improvement Cuttings 50 

Cleanings 51 

Thinnings 52 

Pruning 55 

Reforestation . 55 

Aesthetic Considerations 58 

Chapter IV: 

Harvesting the Woodlot 60-74 

Reproduction Cuttings 60 

Marking the Trees for Removal 63 

Sawing to Bill 66 

, Grading 66 

Stacking and Seasoning 67 

Cost of Manufacture 67 

Brush Disposal 68 

Regeneration. . . 69 

Species to be Favored 70 

Specific Recommendations 72 

Zone B 72 

Zone C 73 

Zone D ' 73 

Chapter V: 

Marketing Woodlot Products 75-102 

Timber Estimating 75 

Area 75 

Timber Cruising 76 

Sample Plot Method . . .' 78 

Strip Survey Method 82 

Timber Sales 88 

Standing Timber 88 

Stumpage Prices 91 

Contract 92 

Selling the Logs 94 

Scaling . . , 95 

Selling Sawn Lumber 96 

Uses of Different Species 97 



Index 



IX 



Chapter V — {Continued) : 

Marketing Woodlot 1'roducts — (Continued) : Page 

Summary 98 

Community Marketing 99 

1. Selling by paid agent 100 

2. Selling through co-operative association 100 

3. Selling stumpage to registered operators 101 

Chapter VI: 

Results of Woodlot Management 103-114 

Cost of Forestry 103 

Aesthetic 103 

Commercial 103 

Regulation 104 

Rotations 106 

Financial Rotation 107 

Cordwood 107 

Pulpwood 107 

Railway Ties, Telephone Poles, etc 108 

Saw Timber : 108 

Shortening the Rotations 109 

Forests as Investments 110 

Financial Returns 112 

Summary 114 

Bibliography 117-120 

Appendix 121-152 

Table 1. Surveyor's Measure (linear) 123 

Table 2. Surveyor's Measure (square) 123 

Table 3. Useful Equivalents and Converting Factors 123 

Table 4. Doyle Log Rule 125 

Table 5. Scribner Decimal C Log Rule 126 

Table 6. Clark's International Log Rule 127 

Table 7. Dimick's Adirondack Standard Log Rule 128 

Table 8. Comparison of Log Rules 130 

Table 9. Approximate Weight of Various New York Wood- 
land Products 131 

Table 10. Volume Table, White Ash, in board feet 133 

Table 11. Volume Table, Aspen, in cubic feet 134 

Table 12. Volume Table, Aspen, in cords 134 

Table 13. Volume Table, Basswood, in board feet 135 

Table 14. Volume Table, Beech, in board feet 135 

Table 15. Volume Table, Beech, in railroad ties 136 

Table 16. Volume Table, Paper Birch, in cubic feet 136 

Table 17. Volume Table, Paper Birch, in board feet 137 

Table IS. Volume Table, Yellow Birch, in board feet 137 

Table 19. Volume Table, Yellow Birch, in railroad ties. . . . 138 

Table 20. Volume Table, Chestnut, in cubic feet 138 

Table 21. Volume Table, Chestnut, in board feet 139 

Table 22. Volume Table, Hickory, in cubic feet 139 

Table 23. Volume Table, Hickory, in board feet 140 

Table 24. Volume Table, Sugar Maple, in board feet 140 

Table 25. Volume Table, Sugar Maple, in railroad ties.... 141 
Table 26. Volume Table, Red, Black and Scarlet Oaks, in 

board feet 141 

Table 27. Volume Table, White and Chestnut Oaks, in board 

feet 142 



x Index 

Appendix — {Continued) : Page 
Table 28. Volume Table, Second Growth White Oak, in cubic 

feet 142 

Table 29. Volume Table, Balsam Fir, in cubic feet 143 

Table 30. Volume Table, Balsam Fir, in board feet 143 

Table 31. Number of Trees per Cord, Balsam Fir 144 

Table 32. Volume Table, Hemlock, in board feet 144 

Table 33. Volume Table, Hemlock, in cubic feet 145 

Table 34. Volume of Hemlock Board in cords per 1000 

board feet 146 

Table 35. Volume Table, Bed Spruce, in cubic feet 146 

Table 36. Volume Table, Red Spruce, in cords 147 

Table 37. Volume Table, Red Spruce, in board feet 147 

Table 38. Volume Table, Red Spruce, in board feet 148 

Table 39. Volume Table, Red Spruce, in standards 148 

Table 40. Volume Table, Red Spruce, in standards 149 

Table 41. Volume Table, Red Pine, in board feet 149 

Table 42. Volume Table, White Pine, in board feet 150 

Table 43. Converting Factors for Standing Trees 152 

Principal Uses of New York Species 153 

Applewood 155 

Arborvitae 155 

Ash 155 

Aspen 156 

Balsam fir 156 

Basswood 156 

Beech 157 

Birch 15S 

Black cherry .' 158 

Black walnut 159 

Elm 159 

Hemlock 160 

Hickorv 160 

Red oak 160 

Sassafras 160 

Spruce 161 

Sugar maple 161 

Sycamore 162 

Tamarack 162 

Willow . . . .' 163 

White oak '..... 163 

White pine . ; 163 

Yellow poplar 163 

Sample Timber Sale Contract 165 



INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Figure 1. First growth forest of pine and hemlock. While the 
forest primeval is unexcelled for beauty, the forest under man- 
agement produces more timber and larger financial returns .... 

Frontispiece 

, Facing page 

Figure 2. First growth white pine. With the exception of the 
tulip tree the white pine is the largest tree in the eastern 
forests. Specimens have been found having a diameter of six 
feet and a height of 250 feet 28 

Figure 3. Sugar bush in spring time. Since colonial times the 
hard maple or "sugar tree" has yielded large quantities of 
sugar. The early settlers followed the custom of the Indians 
in sugaring off the sweet sap 30 

Figure 4. Second growth hardwoods forest in the sapling 
stage. Ordinarily the forester allows the trees to fight their 
own battles until. they are large enough to pay the cost of 
removal. In especial cases "cleanings" may be made 38 

Figure 5. Abandoned wood road in second growth forest, hud- 
son highlands. By cleaning out old roads and trails as fire 
lines, the safety of forest property can be vastly increased. ... 41 

Figure 6. A chestnut tree killed by the blight. This fungus 
disease introduced from China has practically exterminated 
the chestnut as a forest tree throughout the northeastern 
United States 45 

Figure 7. Mixed hardwood forest immediately after an im- 
provement cutting. Dead, diseased, and undesirable specimens 
have been removed. Thus the total growing energy is concen- 
trated upon a few selected stems 49 

Figure 8. Mixed hardwood forest five to six years after an 
improvement cutting. Eemaining trees have increased their 
growth in height and in diameter, since plant food, moisture, 
and sunlight have been made available in larger quantities. 
Seedling and sprout reproduction has come up beneath their 
shade 51 

Figure 9. Group cutting in mixed forest. A clump of mature 
decrepit hardwoods has been removed. White pine reproduc- 
tion will be assured by the presence of seed trees of that species 
on the margin of the opening 55 

Figure 10. Clear cutting in soft maple swamp. Owing to its 
excellent sprouting capacity, soft maple stands can be clear 
cut to advantage. A large mean annual growth is thereby 
secured 62 

Figure 11. Portable saw mill. While the average portable mill 
is not as efficient as a fixed mill with modern band saws, good 
results can be obtained by careful management 68 

[xi] 



xii Illustrations 

Facing page 

Figure 12. Logs piled in eollway ready for mill set up. By 
cutting, skidding, and hauling logs himself, the landowner can 
utilize idle time for help and teams, and insure minimum dam- 
age to young growth in felling 94 

Figure 13. Scaling logs cut from a farm woodlot. The prac- 
tice of measuring or scaling logs can be most easily and accur- 
ately done as the logs are being skidded into the piles called 
railways 96 

Figure 14. Second growth pine forest. Forests when properly 
protected against fire constitute investments similar to long 
term bonds. A planted pine forest will yield approximately 
6 per cent per annum with maturity at forty to fifty years. . . . 113 



INDEX OF PLATES 



Page 
Plate 1. Graphical representation of the growth of the New York 
State budget appropriations between 1910 and 1920. In 1910 
the appropriations amounted to $38,300,000; 1912, $44,800,000; 
1914, $53,800,000; 1916, $52,700,000; 1918, $73,300,000; 1919, 
$78,900,000; 1920, approximately $120,000,000 17 

Plate 2. Outline map of the State of New York showing the loca- 
tion of the principal forest regions 18 

Plate 3. Coppice forest under standards, showing where a few 
healthy trees of seedling origin have been left in the forest to 
provide some larger-sized logs and continued reproduction by 
seed 48 

Plate 4. Improvement cutting. The removal of the diseased pine, 
the worthless dogwood, the dead tree in the foreground, the sup- 
pressed maple, the crooked and suppressed white oak and red 
oak will not only increase the growing space available but also 
greatly improve the growing condition of the stand 50 

Plate 5. Cleanings. The removal of the four- individuals of unde- 
sirable species or character will give more room for the growth 
and development of the other components of the stand, whose 
desirability is characterized by more rapid growth and a higher 
technical value of products t . . . . 52 

Plate 6. Thinnings. The purpose of a thinning is to seek the best 
development of the trees designed for the final harvest. The 
removal of the crooked-boled, large headed beech will give the 
tulip poplar on one side and the white ash on the other more 
room and growing space. The removal of the hopelessly sup- 
pressed hemlock, beech, and maples (in the right center) will 
divert to the desirable survivors an increase in food material, 
soil moisture and growing energy 53 

Plate 7. Reproduction cutting. Before the cutting, and showing 

the trees of the less desirable character which are to be removed 61 

Plate S. Reproduction cuttings. After the cutting, showing the 
seed trees left of desirable species and the reproduction increased 
both in size and amount '. . . 61 

Plate 9. Logging lizard. A home-made sledge for skidding logs 
on the farm woodlot. Its low carriage enables one man to 
handle heavy logs with ease 64 

Plate 10. Log making. Good log making is a requisite of good 
forest management. Avoidance of crook in cutting up a tree 
into logs saves a great deal of waste in stacking and sawing. . . 65 

Plate II. Showing the method of computing the total area of a 

piece of woodlot to be estimated 77 

Plate 12. Dot and dash system of tallying 82 

[ xiii ] 



xiv Plates 

Page 
Plate 13. Sample tally sheet showing the tally, the number and 

the volume of the trees to be cut and those to be left 83 

Plate 14. Sample tally sheet for estimate of large-sized woodlot 

by strip survey method 85 

Plate 15. Details of methods of running strips on ninety-acre 

woodlot in Plate 11 86 

Plate 16. Liberation cutting. The removal of the wide-spread- 
ing "wolf tree," the eighty-year old chestnut, will liberate the 
crowded and overtopped thirty-year old pine and greatly im- 
prove the condition of the forest growth 105 



FOREWORD 



In spite of the books and bulletins which have been written 
about the farm woodlot, there is no type of forest property 
which elicits so many questions. 

Can the woodlot be made to yield a cash revenue ? How and 
when should it be cut ? How can a small amount of logs or 
sawn lumber be profitably handled ? These and countless simi- 
lar questions are being asked the New York State College of 
Forestry. 

In 1912 the College commenced taking stock of forest 
resources, planning to cover all of the State except the twelve 
Adirondack counties in which the State forests administered 
by the Conservation Commission are located. This work was 
continued during the summer seasons of 1913 and 1914. In 
the latter summer, four of the forty-five counties were covered 
by four post-graduate students working under the supervision 
of one of the faculty. Upon this reconnaissance a vast store of 
information was acquired regarding the condition and need of 
the woodland, the past and present treatment; the values 
of standing timber and manufactured products, logging and 
marketing costs, etc. In short, facts were gathered which would 
enable the College to answer intelligently and accurately the 
question, "What can I do to make my woodlot profitable V 

However, to complete such a survey takes a great deal of time 
in a state the size of New York ; consequently it seemed better 
to issue a general bulletin which would cover the main points in 
woodlot management as a progress report, pending the comple- 
tion of the statewide forest survey. 

The College of Forestry as a state-supported institution is 
endeavoring to render the maximum service to the entire State. 
By assisting the private owner to grow, cut and market his for- 
est products with the greatest ease and profit, the College feels 
it is doing much to solve the land problem in New York. For- 
estry will prove no panacea for all economic ills, but unless the 
12,000,000 acres within the state that are unsuited to agricul- 

[l] 



2 The New York State College of Forestry 

ture can be made to yield their maximum return, the permanent 
prosperity of the State is impossible. 

The real problem of the farm woodlot is not so much that it 
should and can be made the producer of a valuable and revenue- 
yielding material, timber, as it is the factor of disposing of this 
material at a profitable figure to the owner. In short, the prob- 
lem of woodlot forestry is mainly the problem of marketing its 
products. And marketing the products of the farm woodlot to 
advantage is just as important and is confronted with similar 
difficulties to marketing any of the other products of the farm. 
Given access to the means and methods of profitable marketing, 
it will be but a short time before every farmer will make his 
woodlot contribute to an important part of the revenue of the 
farm. Fuller utilization of its revenue-producing capabilities 
will mean an added knowledge of the cultural and silvicultural 
methods of woods management which we call forestry. 



CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION 

What is Forestry ? Forestry is the raising of repeated forest 
crops from non-agricultural soils and the proper utilization of 
these crops. 

A lumberman who is clear cutting forest land is ordinarily 
not concerned with another crop of trees, and hence is not prac- 
ticing forestry. Neither should a wealthy estate owner who 
plants up ten fertile acres with pine trees think he is engaged 
in forestry. Such planting is " arboriculture", and should be 
considered landscape improvement. The forester, who is first 
of all an economist, insists that each acre of land should be put 
to its most profitable and best permanent use ; that trees should 
be grown only upon land which is too steep or too stony for 
tillage or too sterile for the production of field crops. Certain 
exceptions will immediately be thought of, e. g., the catalpa 
plantations of the Middle Western States, but the main prin- 
ciple holds true. 

The development of forestry to include the utilization and 
marketing of the forest crops is comparatively modern. Agri- 
culture for a long time concerned itself with crop production 
alone, but within the past decade it has expanded to include 
many phases of specialized manufacture and distribution of 
farm products. At present the formation of cooperative buying 
and selling associations is considered an important phase of the 
work of the Federal Department of Agriculture. The same 
principle holds in forestry. 

In addition to timber crops the forest may yield other valu- 
able products with whose management the forester is actively 
concerned. For instance, in the West, thousands of head of 
cattle graze upon the national forests, and the United States 
Forest Service derives nearly half its revenue from grazing 
fees. In continental forests the propagation and protection of 
game requires a large measure of the forester's attention, and 
the returns from shooting privileges constitute a considerable 

[3] 



4 The New York State College of Forestry 

part of the average forest income. In this country the game 
question is receiving greater attention by the foresters each year, 
and the game supply of the future can he assured only by the 
intelligent cooperation of the men in charge of our forest areas. 
Thus forestry is concerned with all phases of forest production 
and distribution, and the field is constantly growing wider. 

The Need of Forestry 

The forestry problem in this country and in New York State 
is essentially one of economics. Land which can produce no 
other crops at a reasonable profit must be made to yield forest 
crops, since idle land is a detriment to the State at large as well 
as to the owner. 

Forestry is needed in New York for four principal reasons: 

I. There are large areas unsuited to agriculture which must 
be kept productive. Of the total land surface of the State 
(30,000,000 acres) about twelve million acres are unsuited to 
agriculture under present economic conditions. The forester 
insists that this land shall not lie idle but yield a revenue to its 
owner. There are in New York State to-day 4,400,000 acres 
of unimproved non-agricultural land within the farm fences. 
These constitute the big woodlot area of the State. The greater 
bulk of this land, say 4,000,000 acres, is capable of producing 
200 board feet per acre per year, or an aggregate for the State 
of more than one billion board feet. The yearly lumber bill of 
New York, is around $125,000,000, of which more than 
$85,000,000 is sent and spent out of the State of New York. 
This money should be spent within the State for our own grown 
lumber, paying for our own labor and being deposited in our 
own savings bank. Forest crops solve this problem. 

II. The products of the forest are indispensable to our civi- 
lization. In spite of the increasing use of substitutes, steel, 
concrete, etc., wood materials possess properties which, for cer- 
tain purposes, make substitution impossible. Twice as much 
timber per capita is being used as was consumed thirty years 
ago. Furniture, flooring, books, newspapers, all depend upon 
the forest for their supply of raw material, and our transporta- 
tion systems which distribute coal, provisions, etc., would be 



Forestry for the Private Oivner 5 

absolutely crippled without railway ties ,and telegraph poles. 
Under circumstances as they exist to-day a shortage in forest 
products would be felt almost as keenly as a famine in food- 
stuffs. Fernow* states that 95 per cent of the timber consumed 
goes into necessities, and that "from the cradle to the coffin" we 
are surrounded by the products of the forest. Proper care of the 
forest growth and close utilization of its products are matters of 
priine importance to each and every citizen of the State of ]Mew 
York. 

III. The indirect influences of the forest make them of incal- 
culable value. For many years the forestry movement in this 
State received the bulk of its support from a body of men and 
women who loved the woods and the lakes, who urged the pro- 
tection of forests and waters because they were beautiful and 
gave pleasure to countless nature lovers, and because uncon- 
sciously they felt that these influences were extremely valuable. 
To-day while affirming that the main arguments in favor of a 
vigorous forest policy in New York State are based on economic 
grounds, we also realize that these aesthetic and so-called indi- 
rect influences have a very high value, some of which may be 
readily expressed in dollars and cents. 

Climate 

Among these influences the importance of forest cover in 
moderating climatic extremes and in increasing the amount of 
precipitation are often cited. It is an experience common to 
anyone who lives in the country that upon a cold winter day it 
is always warmer within the forest than in the open fields, and 
during the summer season the forest canopy, by protecting the 
soil from the direct rays of the sun and keeping the ground 
shady and moist, keeps the atmosphere within the forest appre- 
ciably cooler. Thus large bodies of forest undoubtedly assist 
in rendering the climate more agreeable ; however, the effects of 
forest cover upon climate are necessarily local. 

Precipitation 

Concerning the influence of forests upon precipitation, the 
evidence is somewhat difficult to secure. Investigations carried 



Fernow, Economics of Forestry, chap. 2. 



(J The New York State College of Forestry 

on by European foresters have proved that large masses of for- 
est cover located upon mountain tops undoubtedly do increase 
the amount of snow and rainfall locally. Zon* believes that the 
amount of precipitation enjoyed by the states lying in the 
interior of this continent is dependent to a large degree upon 
the amount of forest cover situated across the track of prevail- 
ing winds. 

Run-off 

Concerning the influence of forest cover upon the run-off of 
rain and snow, the effect is much more readily demonstrated, 
since the sponge-like action of the tree canopy, trunks, root sys- 
tems, and finally the marvelous water-holding capacity of the 
forest floor is readily understood by the average citizen. From 
25 per cent to 50 per cent of the water falling during a summer 
shower never reaches the ground, since it is intercepted by the 
leaves and branches and evaporated directly into the air. When 
an unusually heavy shower falls, or when the snow is melting in 
the springtime, other parts of the forest come into play. 

The humus, that organic layer composed of leaves and twigs 
lying on top of the soil, possesses great water-holding capacity, 
being able to contain several times its own weight of water. If 
the rain is sufficiently heavy to soak this layer completely, then 
the water collects upon the surface of the ground in the hun- 
dreds of miniature storage basins, surrounded by the buttressed 
tree trunks. Finally the deeply penetrating roots open channels 
into the sub-soil, where the water can seep to reappear days 
afterward, when all flood danger is passed. Briefly expressed, 
a cutover watershed, especially one from which the humus has 
been burned either by a slash-fire or by the sun's rays, resembles 
a tin. roof from which the water runs with great speed into the 
spout (stream) at the foot of the slope. A watershed well for- 
ested behaves like a roof covered with a heavy layer of sponges. 
Only the excess runs off immediately, leaving the balance to 
gradually drip into the spout (stream) and evaporate slowly 
into the air. Forests alone will not always control a bad flood 
situation, but a dense forest cover, together with many small 

* See Final Report- of the National Waterways Commission, p. 220. 
Appendix V. Washington, D. C, 1905. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 7 

storage reservoirs along the course of the mountain torrents, 
have been found by the French foresters most efficacious in 
reducing the amount of flood damage. In short, it has been 
proven by the experience of foresters in Europe that the con- 
servation of water and the conservation of forests go hand in 
hand. They are interdependent problems. 

Recreation 

The recreational value of our national and state forests is 
one that has been by no means overlooked in the past and should 
certainly be considered in the future, because anything which 
benefits the health and strength of the citizens is in itself a tre- 
mendous asset to the State. In addition, the recreational value 
of the Adirondacks and Catskills yields very large cash returns 
to thousands of people in the form of railroad fares, wages to 
guides, hotel and camp employees, etc. It was estimated by the 
Conservation Commission, some years ago, that during an aver- 
age year, the sums expended in the Adirondacks by summer 
tourists, fishermen and hunters are upwards of $18,000,000. 
This is a large return, but by far the largest return is found 
in the increased vigor and courage which these citizens take 
back after their days or weeks of playtime spent in the life- 
giving Xorth Woods. 

However, some ardent advocates, of forest protection refuse 
1o admit that the same piece of ground can conserve the run-off 
of life-giving water, can serve as a hunting and fishing ground 
for the tired desk or shop worker, a breeding place and haven 
for fish and game, and at the same time can yield a revenue in 
the form of timber crops. 

Plenty of evidence to prove that forest land need not be left 
in virgin condition to please the hunter and tourist is available 
both at home and abroad. The noted resorts of the German 
Black Forest are for the most part located in regions yielding 
handsome revenues from the sale of matured timber without 
in any way destroying the beauty of the mountain slopes nor 
the breeding haunts of the game. The national- forests in the 
same way serve the public as recreation grounds without being 
locked up' against proper cuttings. Viewed from all sides the 
forest areas are a priceless resource, and the state which does 



8 The Neiv York State College of Forestry 

not adopt a far-sighted and liberal policy in the management 
of its non-agricultural lands falls far short of its full duty to 
the future citizens. 

IV. Forests are valuable to the individual owner and espe- 
cially to the owner of small wooded areas or woodlots. 

1. As a means of utilizing non-agricultural land 

True farming land is that which can be made to produce 
profitable food crops. There is on every farm in New York 
State, more or less land which will produce no other crop but 
timber, because it is rough, steep, stony, worn out, poorly 
drained, or too far back on the rear of the farm to be managed 
successfully. There is practically no land in the State which 
will not produce profitable and successful timber crops. 

2. To meet the actual needs of the farm for wood material 

There is always a certain amount of repair work or construc- 
tion to do about any farm, fences to build, posts to set, fruit 
trees to be braced, out buildings and barns to be re-silled or 
re-floored. 

There are 167,000 farms in New York State each of which 
uses, on the average, the equivalent of 5,000 board feet of lumber 
per year for general repair and construction. This amounts to 
more than 800,000,000 board feet each year. All of this timber 
should be grown on the farm for home consumption, and in 
addition to the cash expenses saved thereby, there would also 
be saved to the agricultural population of New York State 
freight charges totaling up to enormous sums. In short, the 
natural source of all wood material used on the farm should 
be the farm woodlot. 

3. To meet the demands of the farm and local fuel situation 

Between 1910 and 1915, due to the great improvement in 
state road construction and the increased efficiency of motor 
transportation, except in the more remote rural communities, 
coal, to a great extent, supplanted wood as a fuel in farm homes. 
The experience of county fuel administrators during the coal 
shortage of the war period, and the increasing cost of coal itself 
to the consumer, seems to indicate that in the future, its use as 



Forestry for the Private Owner 9 

a fuel for homes in the rural communities will decrease con- 
siderably and that the use of wood fuel will come back. The 
natural source of wood fuel on the farm is of course the farm 
woodlot. 

4. As a means of protection and regulation of the farm water 

supply 

A forest growth at and above the "spring under the hill," 
which supplies the farm with its drinking water, protects 
against its drying up, by the water storage powers of its forest 
floor in seasons of drought, and against its silting up and filling 
in, in times of heavy rains and floods. Thus an ever-abundant 
supply of water is conserved and its purity for use assured. 

5. As a profitable means of utilizing labor during the winter 

months 

This is especially a consideration where the problem of keep- 
ing and utilizing good labor and help is important. The proper 
development of the farm woodlot offers the most satisfactory 
solution of this problem. 

6. As a protection against winds 

The location of the farm woodlot can bear a very definite 
relation to and exercise a very beneficial influence over the 
personnel and activities of the farm and farm management. 

a. As a protection to buildings 

A narrow belt of woods properly located in between the farm 
buildings and the prevailing winds, will break the force of the 
wind, and to a great extent moderate their severity and tem- 
perature and add greatly to the comfort of the home and of the 
stock in the barns. Even in winter, when the hardwood trees 
are stripped of their leaves, such effect is very considerable. 
It is even greater in summer. 

b. As a protection to growing field crops 

While along the south and west sides of cultivated fields, the 
effect of neighboring forest growth, to a certain extent, is to 
shade out and retard the growth of planted crops, nevertheless 



10 The New York State College of Forestry 

the beneficial effects of neighboring woodland growth quite over- 
balance this. The force of heavy, hot, drying winds is broken, 
and the soil of the cultivated field is protected from rapid drying 
out of the surface layers. The delicate plants of early truck crops 
can be protected against the blighting effect of cold north winds. 
Orchards, especially when heavily branched and heavily laden 
with a rapidly ripening crop, are protected against breakage and 
loss. 

c. As a protection to pastured stock 

Dairy herds, or fattening and young cattle, are kept in better 
condition, look better, and yield better returns, if they can have 
the advantage of tree shade in fly season, or in the heat of 
summer. It is not advisable to turn over the whole of the wood- 
lot for the pasturage of cattle. Such practice is very harmful 
to the best condition of the woodlot. Narrow fringes of a woods 
or tree growth along stream borders, ridges or pasture fences 
are more desirable and fully as efficacious. 

7. As a means of increasing the attractiveness and value of the 
farm. 

Woodlands make the farm more attractive, more homelike 
and more desirable for purchase. The existence of a thrifty 
piece of woodland may add from one to three thousand dollars 
to the value of a farm for sale. 

Possibilities of Fokestky in ^Xew York 

Xew York is naturally a great forest-producing state, and its 
potential forest wealth is second only to its agricultural rich- 
ness. It is endowed with all natural factors which permit trees 
to germinate and grow successfully; soil, rainfall, climatic 
extremes and length of growing season are all favorable, and it 
is not surprising that in many parts of the kState when fires 
are prevented, the forest reclaims open fields and abandoned 
pastures with amazing speed. It is the artificial conditions 
arising from our rapidly growing civilization which have made 
such tremendous inroads upon the original. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 11 

Original Forests 

Prior to the coming of the white man, the area which now 
constitutes Xew York was practically an unbroken wilderness, 
the only clearings being those occasionally found along the 
shores of the lakes or at strategic points, like the junction of 
streams, where Indian villages were located. The rest was a 
vast primeval forest."" 

From the remains of old stands of first growth timber, it is 
occasionally found possible to reconstruct a fairly accurate pic- 
ture of the forest which then covered the ground. Then, as 
to-day, the North Woods were covered with a mixture of ever- 
greens (spruce, balsam or hemlock) and hardwoods; the latter 
being largely beech, birch and maple. On Long Island, extend- 
ing up the Hudson and Mohawk Valleys and fringing the larger 
lakes, were stands composed of huge oaks and chestnuts, mixed 
with basswood, ash and tulip poplar, and liberally sprinkled 
with hemlock and pine. The two latter species, being unable 
to sprout from the stump, have practically succumbed to the 
century-long struggle against axe and fire, and as a consequence 
have largely disappeared from the mixture. Only the best 
sprouters have survived, while the more desirable species, in 
many places, have been completely exterminated. 

Upon the hilly lands in what now comprises the southern tier 
of counties was found the superb forest reaching up from 
Pennsylvania, in which hundreds of white pine were of leading 
importance. The softwoods, or evergreens, on account of the 
lightness and ease of working, were heavily cut. As a result 
we have the usual consequence of reckless forest management 
pursued over a long period, "the survival of tlie unfittest" 
(for use). 

Present Conditions 

It has been said of Xew England that had not trees been 
endowed bv Providence with a marvellous faculty of holding 



* Bertram, in his "Observations" (1750) concerning the forests of south- 
ern and central New York, says : "We observed the tops of the trees to be 
so close to one another for many miles together that- there is no seeing 
which way the clouds drive, nor which way the wind sets; and it seems 
almost as if the sun had never shone on the ground since the creation." 



12 The New York State College of Forestry 

fast to territory in the face of the most terrific onslaughts, the 
country would be as hare as the plains. The same statement 
might be made of jSTew York with equal truth. 

Viewed as a menace by the early settlers, the splendid forests 
were attacked with fire and axe until the land needed for tillage 
was cleared. The practice of cutting and burning trees to clear 
the land persisted long after the need for such wholesale clear- 
ances had passed, and as a consequence local stringencies in 
forest products were early felt by the colonists. 

At present the forest land in New York is suffering from the 
wrong point of view. With the wealth of timber resources with 
which this country was originally endowed, it is not strange that 
the idea that our forests could not be exhausted became wide- 
spread. As a consequence, forest land was treated as a mineral 
lode, a resource to be stripped and then thrown aside instead of 
being handled as an area capable of yielding repeated crops. 
In fact, with forests as with agricultural land, minerals, animal 
life, etc., the very richness of this continent in all natural 
resources has been responsible for the spirit of lavish prodigality 
which marks their management. In the case of precious metals, 
coal, oil and gas, when the supply is gone, the tale is told, but 
with forests timely measures will secure a return of this 
resource. On account of the slowness of tree growth, these meas- 
ures should be begun long before the day of actual need. 

The forests of New York have suffered because it has been 
deemed unprofitable to manage them conservatively; because it 
was believed impossible to secure an annual or periodic revenue 
over a long period of years. In the early part of the past 
century, the small, privately owned timber lot supplied the needs 
of the owner and small local demands. With the building up 
of the vast railway systems and the development of superior 
merchandizing methods by the larger lumber corporations, it 
has been far easier for the small woodlot owner to buy the few 
thousand feet of Western or Southern lumber from a local 
dealer than cut, skid and saw the logs himself. When the 
timber upon the lot was mature, the stump age was generally sold 
for a song to a portable mill operator who skinned it regardless 
of its future conditions. Thus, the average farm woodlot in 
New York has been cut and recut; it has been burned and 



Forestry for the Private Owner 13 

burned again; it has been grazed repeatedly till the diseased 
and undesirable specimens left standing could draw but little 
sustenance from the compacted and exhausted soil. After being 
used as the catch-all of the entire farm, it has been abused 
because it is not continuously productive nor financially 
profitable. 

This condition has its serious aspect, not only from the stand- 
point of unsound national and state economics, but because the 
timber supply of the future is in private hands. In the United 
States, three-fourths of the standing timber is privately owned 
(ten per cent being held in farm woodlots), while in New York 
State, two-thirds of the timber is in private hands. Since we 
are cutting timber three times as fast as it is growing, it is high 
time that steps were being taken to utilize the privately owned 
forest land, especially that portion owned in connection as farm 
woodlots or larger tracts owned by the farmers of the State and 
and nation. The successful practice of forestry by the small 
landowner must be assured if our children's children will have 
a good supply of wood obtainable at a reasonable price. 

Remedies 

How can the small landowner be induced to practice forestry 
to protect his woodlot; to cut his timber himself, or if sold, to 
have it cut according to silvicultural methods and not as the 
owner's grandfather cut ? The answer is, by making forests 
profitable. The average owner will not trouble himself about 
property that yields little or no income. Show him profit and 
suggest the right management and the progressive owner will 
soon fall in line. The owner of large areas of woodlot, which 
may have been previously producing no financial returns, will 
find little difficulty in marketing his forest crop, either as stump- 
age or manufacturing products, at a reasonable price. The 
owner of a few acres of woodland is not so fortunately situated. 
The amount of timber to be felled and sawed may not be large 
enough to furnish a mill set up, or if so, he may not have suffi- 
cient stumpage to saw car-lots of his best species. The usual 
result is that such stumpage and such small parcels of lumber 
are sold for a song. 



14 The Neiv York State College of Forestry 

How can this situation lie remedied? By educating the pri- 
vate owner of timber lands in New York concerning the present 
and future value of his holdings, and by direct assistance in 
marketing his forest crops. 

Since its establishment, the College has endeavored through 
grange and club lectures, bulletins and circulars to reach the 
public and inform them concerning the value and possibilities 
of their forest property. 

In addition, upon the four Experiment Stations being oper- 
ated by the College in different parts of the State, problems 
common to each particular region are being worked out so that 
specific replies may be given to questions which may be asked. 
Finaliy it is the aim of the College, through its Extension and 
Utilization Services, to assist the small owner and manufacturer 
of forest products in marketing his wares with the greatest 
amount of profit. If profit can be assured, probably little fur- 
ther inducement will be necessary. It is the aim of the College 
to make every acre of non-agricultural land within the State 
yield a good return to its owner, and to render its return to the 
State by supplying opportunities for labor to citizens of the 
future, and, at the same time, supply repeated crops of timber, 
material absolutely indispensable to our civilization. 

With practically one-tenth the total population of the nation 
situated within the boundaries of New York, with a perfect 
net work of steam and electric lines, with the canal system pro- 
viding splendid facilities for the transportation of heavy 
freights, the problem of economically marketing and distribut- 
ing the products of the woodlot should not be difficult. How- 
ever, custom and lack of knowledge must be overcome. The 
farmers and small owners must be made to realize that woodlot 
activities will solve the labor problem during the winter months, 
and in addition, will supply farm timbers, sills, fence posts; 
that the farm w T oodlot will yield a handsome return upon the 
capital value it represents. Then, and not until then, will the 
private owner be actually interested in the practice of forestry. 



CHAPTER II 

THE WOODLOT 

Importance. The forest products obtained from the farm 
woodlot and small timber lots owned by members of the rural 
population are vastly more important than is generally believed. 
Moreover, with the steady decrease in the forest area and 
amount of standing timber throughout the State, their relative 
size and importance is rapidly increasing. 

In the United States, as a whole, it is estimated that nearly 
200,000,000 acres, out of the 54:5,000,000 acres of forest land 
(containing 10 per cent of the national timber supply) are 
contained within the farm woodlots. According to the census 
of 1900, $109,000,000, and in 1910, $195,000,000 was 
received from the sale of woodlot products. In 1910, in eight 
out of twenty of the eastern states, woodlot products were con- 
sidered as one of the three leading crops and sources of revenue 
of the farms. The increase in values between 1900 and 1910 
may not indicate enlarged interest or greater exploitation of 
the woodland owned in connection with farm property, since a 
part of this difference was doubtless due to cuttings for the 
purpose of clearing lands for agriculture. It is nevertheless 
true that the value of woodlots and their products will show a 
decided relative increase during the next generation owing to 
the rapid decrease of the national timber supply. 

In Xew York it is estimated by the Conservation Commis- 
sion* that out of the approximately thirty million acres of land 
area, 4,400,000 acres are held as woodlots. No figures regard- 
ing the income now being derived from this area are available, 
but judging from results obtained in certain parts of New Eng- 
land, were economic forestry practiced upon this portion of the 
farm holdings, and in addition were the seven millions of acres 
of land fenced, but unimproved and idle,f put under forest 



"Bulletin 9 — Woodlot Forestry — published by N. Y. Conservation 
Commission, 1913. 

f Abstract U. S. Census 1910. p. 307. 

[15] 



lt> The New York State College of Forestry 

management, the income of the farmers and small landowners 
of New York would be increased by several million dollars each 
year. Areas in Germany, France and Switzerland, similar in 
character and supporting tree growth of the same genera, but 
different species, pines, spruces, fir, etc., are yielding from two 
dollars to four dollars per acre per year net revenue. A tithe 
of this income would make a large difference to the income of 
the State especially when it is realized that the State is sending 
outside its boundaries each year for wood products, the sum of 
$85,000,000, and when it is appreciated that for each dollar 
that is paid for stumpage, approximately four dollars is paid 
in wages to convert the raw material, the tree and the log, into 
the finished product. 

Whenever such facts as the above are cited, objections like, 
"Oh, yes! but it takes forty-five to fifty years to grow a tree," 
or, "The income from forest land never will amount to much," 
etc., etc., are heard. In view of the fact that the sum of all 
city, county and state indebtedness amounts to approximately 
$47.50 per acre, that the cost of running the State Government 
has increased from $42,000,000 in 1909 to $120,000,000 for 
1920 during the past nine years, that a direct tax to supplement 
the insufficient revenue of the State is necessary, the State of 
New York and its citizens can by no means afford to overlook 
any source of steady revenue however small, especially when 
this possible revenue means more income to the property owners, 
more wages to labor, larger receipts to transportation companies 
— in short, statewide prosperity. The permanent prosperity 
of New York State is absolutely dependent upon the proper use 
of its land, both tillable and non-agricultural, and realizing that 
such development takes time, a proper land policy begun now 
is positively necessary. Such a policy, however, can only be 
inaugurated after the completion of a state-wide survey and 
land classification so that the possibilities, whether agricultural 
or forest, of each acre within the State may be definitely 
recorded. 

Woodlot Problems. On account of the range of climatic 
conditions and the forest types resulting therefrom found within 
New York State, the forest problems are many and varied. 



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LS The New York Slate College of Forestry 

According to Bray* a1 Least five distinct forest zones or regions 
have been differentiated. They are as follows: 

I. Southern species, consisting of persimmon, sweet- 
gum, etc. (Found only on Staten Island and on the south- 
ern shove of Long Island.) 

[I. The sprout hardwood type — common throughout 
the Hudson, Mohawk and all the river valleys of the south- 
ern tier of counties. This type is also found along the 
shores of the Great and Finger Lakes. 

III. Northern hardwoods, comprising the forests of 
beech, birch and maple found in the higher land along the 
southern tier of counties and in the foothills of the Adiron- 
dack^. 

IV. The coniferous forest, of the Adirondack region 
and the Catskill mountain tops. 

Y. Sub-arctic type — found in the highest elevations of 
the Adirondacks (consisting of dwarf plants and polar 
vegetation). 

Within each of ihese regions the management of the forest 
presents a distinct silvicultural problem, and within each region 
a different set of economic and market conditions prevails, so 
that intensive management would require different specific 
recommendations for each woodlot located in those regions. 
While the College of Forestry is loath to give advice regarding 
forest management of any property at long range, nevertheless, 
under certain circumstances, broad rules of management can 
lie given which will be of great assistance in properly handling 
the woodlot. f It will be noted, in the chapter devoted to the hand- 



* The Development of tin- Vegetation of New York State by Dr. William 
1.. Bray, Vol. XVI, November, 1915, No. 2— Technical Publication No. 3— 

The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University. See map 
in index. 

f As a pari of its state-wide educational work, tlte State College of For- 
estry offers to make plans for the protection and management of timber- 
lands and woodlot s for the reforestation of eut-over and barren areas. 
Where the tunberland. woodlois or barren areas are between 300 and 1,000 
a< res and where there is reasonable assurance that plans will be carried 
out, they will be made at no expense to the owner. Where there is less 
than the above amount, it will lie necessary to have owners pay expenses 
of traveling and sustenance while the plan is being made. Owners of 
smaller tracts may combine, and by bringing the area to 300 or more acres, 
have plans made without cost. 



R ■m.*;«H|i.'^»(i 1 »«i p .«»*,^««^«m«w«»»JW* 




THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

SHOWING THE LOCATION 

OP 

Zone A ; Southern species ; sweet gum, willow oak, persimmon, etc 



I | = Zone B ; Chestnut, oaks, hickories, tulip-poplar, etc. 

I I == ^ one C '• Sugar maple, beech, yellow birch, hemlock, white pine, etc. 

1 1 = Zone ^ ; Dominant trees of zone C plus red spruce, balsam fir and paper birch. 

= Zone E ; Canadian zone, red spruce, balsam fir, paper birch, mountain ash, etc. 

= Zone F; Arctic-circumpolar plants. Tundra-like vegetation. 



Plate 2. Outline map of the State of New York showing the location of the principal forest regions 



Forestry for the Private Owner 19 

ling of the woodlot, that the system of management recom- 
mended FOE THE WOODLOTS IN EACH OF THESE FOREST EEGIONS 
IS PEACTICALLY IDENTICAL AS MAEKET CONDITIONS AND THE 
NEED OF THE OWNEE (a CASH REVENUE EITHER EVERY YEAR, 
OR SAY EVERY TEN YEARS) MAKE A SINGLE TYPE OF CUTTING 

desirable. Hence, the system of management advised has 
been adapted to the needs of the owner rather than adhering to 
a strict silvicultural system. 

Possibilities 

To the farmer of fifty years ago the woodlot was an important 
part of his farm because it produced materials of value, both 
for home consumption and for sale, besides it gave occupation 
to men and teams during the slack winter season. With the 
development of the Western and Southern forests following the 
Civil War, a different situation arose. In the West enormous 
tracts of land were given by a generous government to transpor- 
tation companies for the purpose of encouraging the building 
of rail and wagon roads. The^e tracts were either retained by 
the original corporations, or sold in enormous blocks to lumber 
companies. These companies, operating on a gigantic scale, soon 
developed a splendid system for merchandizing their wares, 
assisted by the network of railroads which have been built 
during the past forty years and by the cheap freights afforded 
by water transportation in coasting vessels. The result is, that 
in many states domestic lumber has been largely driven from 
the market, since southern pine and western fir are offered "just 
as good" by the local dealer who buys cheaply with excellent 
arrangements for credit. 

The result could be readily foreseen. Trade, like any moving 
object, follows the path of least resistance, and it soon became 
much more convenient for the casual purchaser to use southern 
pine manufactured in a large mill possessing excellent machin- 
ery, and carried by the local yard in all sizes and grades, than 
to use local lumber indifferently sawed into a few set dimen- 
sions, and poorly graded. As a consequence, local lumber has 
fallen into disrepute, and for various reasons state timber very 
often commands a lower price than the same species shipped in 



20 The New York State College of Forestry 

from some large mill outside the State. The small mill run 
by water power is rapidly disappearing, custom sawing in per- 
manent mills is becoming a thing of the past, and nowadays 
about the only way a small landowner can get any lumber from 
his own woodlot is to hire a portable sawmill to set up on his 
property and saw out the necessary material. Such a set-up is 
rather costly, and as a consequence, much more timber is usually 
sawed than is needed at that time. 

As a consequence, the common attitude toward the woodlot 
has been one of almost indifference, whereas, in former clays 
when the winter's wood or the needed barn sills were being cut, 
such cuttings were located where they would do the most good. 
Big spreading trees which were crowding a group of young pine 
seedlings, dead and diseased individuals, trees of undesirable 
species — weed trees — were cut. This meant a gradually im- 
proving woodlot, one that was known to be a -producing portion 
of the farm, and its value was fully appreciated. With the 
increasing use of coal, with the growing difficulty in getting 
joists and planks sawed out of home-cut logs, the typical New 
York woodlot has been allowed to run down. Trees when cut 
for home consumption, nowadays, are most commonly cut near 
the road — where they are easiest to load — rather than removed 
where they will improve the condition of the woodlot. The 
trees of desirable species are taken for beams and sills, and the 
ground left in command of the weed trees which are not slow 
to cover the area with their offspring. Fires are allowed to rage 
unchecked — '''What difference does a fire make, it doesn't kill 
the big trees." Cattle are allowed to graze at will within the 
woodlot, eating many of the seedlings and trampling upon 
more.* 

Or, if the owner leaves his forest land untouched for a score 
of years, it will one day attract the attention of a portable mill 
owner who offers, as a rule, a lump sum for all the standing 
timber upon it. Such an offer is generally accepted, for who 
can resist money, especially when it is offered for a crop it cost 
nothing to grow, and which at present is yielding nothing? 
And so the average owner parts with his timber, having sold 

* See pages 40 and 46 for damage caused by forest fires and grazing. 



Forestry for the Private Oiuner 21 

it for a song — ■ "unsight unseen" — with no idea of how much 
timber he had or what will be the market value of the manufac- 
tured product, or, how the land will be left when the job is 
finished. Then the mill man sets up his mill, cuts just as he 
pleases — unhampered by a written contract — all the sound trees 
of desirable species, and leaves the ground covered with a tangle 
of slash above which tower the few decrepit and diseased indi- 
viduals of marketable variety and the hundreds of weed trees 
which are not saleable. In most cases fire finishes the job, and 
a forest productive and attractive, in a few months is changed 
into a waste, ready to be occupied by briers, grasses, and a 
thicket of young weed trees instead of seedlings of the more 
desirable species. 

After a decade or two, such a mangled woodlot — representing 
the "survival of the unfitteet" (for use) — becomes still more 
an eyesore, and the present owner unaware of the former condi- 
tion and possible future value of such a run down piece of 
woodland, continues its abuse — when proper use would make 
it both attractive and profitable. 

What is the remedy for this situation f How can the four 
and one-half million acres within New York, handled or mis- 
handled for the most part, according to the above recipe, be 
restored and made profitable? 

By education and cooperative demonstration. 

Our forefathers derived materials, occupation and income 
from the woodland owned in connection with their farms, and 
the vanishing timber supply will make such products of far 
greater value in the future than in the past. Since forest crops 
take time to mature, the beginning should be made immediately. 

The New York farmer should, first of all, consider the woodlot 
a producing part of his farm, one capable of yielding a steady 
though periodic income. He should be taught that cultivation 
of his woodlot crops pays excellent dividends; that the crop 
produced grows while he sleeps, and, since it is not perishable, 
may be held over for months or years until market conditions 
are right. He should learn to estimate the amount of timber 
standing on his property and its rate of increase. When he is 



22 The New York State College of Forestry 

ready to sell his products he should be businesslike in the trans- 
action and. demand a fair price. JSTo farmer would dream of 
selling a bin full of pears or apples for a lump sum without 
measuring the fruit, yet scores of owners sell their standing 
timber without knowing how much they have or how much they 
should receive.* 

The fashion of custom sawing should be revived, and with the 
increased activity in woodlot work and the growing appreciation 
of water power, there is little doubt that many of the abandoned 
dams and neglected mill ponds which dotted rural New York 
in former days will be restored, and the small mill will again 
saw lumber and grind meal for the local people. 

The growing activity of the County Farm Bureaus, and the 
increasing number of Farmers' Cooperative Associations holds 
forth much promise. Already the cooperative marketing of 
fruit and vegetables has been tried with remarkable success in 
certain parts of the country, more particularly among the fruit 
growers of the far west. From cooperative marketing of farm 
field products to cooperative marketing of farm woodlot pro- 
ducts is but a short step, and there is no reason why the county 
agent of the next decade should advise concerning markets, 
prices and methods of selling the products of the woodlot. 
Where no county or local cooperative buying and selling asso- 
ciations are found, an aggressive grange might take charge of 
the marketing end of the woodlot. It is not always possible for 
a single farmer to furnish a sufficient amount of any one kind 
or size of material to warrant a sale, and in true union there is 
strength. The right methods of handling woodland can be 
taught with comparative ease, but it is the belief of many inves- 
tigators that in the past too little stress has been laid upon the 
financial outcome. Make forestry or agriculture financially 
attractive and there will be no lack of practitioner. With 
proper marketing methods, woodlot possibilities in ]NFew York 
are unusually bright. (See Chapter V for detailed advice in 
relation to marketing.) 

* A Bulletin, Wood-Using Industries of New York, published by The New 
York State College of Forestry (Series XIV, Number 2, 1913) and the 
U. S. Forest Service, shows the value of the manufactured product. From 
these prices (lumber prices have not changed materialtv since 1913), and 
the data given in chapter V an idea of the value of timber, standing or in 
the log, may be obtained. 



CHAPTER III 

TENDING THE WOODLOT 

General 

To one familiar with the culture of ordinary field crops the 
management of a piece of woodland should present few difficul- 
ties. The forest produces a crop like any field and trees, reacts 
to the same factors which control the growth of all plant life. 
When the crop idea is grasped, the cultural methods used to 
carry a forest from youth to maturity, are readily understood. 

Soil 

The site usually occupied by the woodlot is one that is too 
steep or too stony for tillage or else too sterile for profitable 
culture. Forestry being based on sound economics insists that 
each acre within the State be put to its best permanent use, 
hence, if land is fertile, theoretically the forest should be cleared 
off and some kind of field crops be raised. However, in the case 
of the majority, of farms in this State, it is not more land which 
is needed but a more intelligent and more intensive cultivation 
of the area already cleared. 

On account of the modest demands of the tree communities 
which we call forests, profitable growth may be secured from 
land entirely too sterile for agriculture, and countless instances 
proving this statement are available. The pine plains in north- 
ern Xew York, and the sandy stretch of land near Schenectady 
once supported superb specimens of white pine, and even the 
most gravelly region of Long Island will grow splendid trees 
if fires are prevented. Thus, in spite of the large areas of land 
now classed as "idle land," there is hardly an acre of land above 
water within the Empire State which will not support tree 
growth of some kind. New York has a huge 'problem of idle, 
rather than of waste land.* 

By suiting the species to the soil these areas can be made 
productive, although care must 'be used in the choice of species. 
Broad-leaved trees, as a rule, demand from one-half to one- 
quarter the soil fertility which field crops demand, and they, 

* Lovejoy. The Segregation of Farm from Forest Land. Journal of 
Forestry, October, 1919. 

[23] 



24 The New York State College of Forestry 

in turn, require more than the conifers, which need even less 
organic matter and salts, and only from one-sixth to one-tenth 
the moisture needed by hardwood trees. It goes without saying 
that the soil must be of sufficient depth, although certain species 
like spruce will grow on shallow soils. Unless the depth of the 
soil is at least two feet, the trees are liable to suffer con- 
siderably from drought and windthrow, or if able to get started 
on shallow soil, the forest will never properly mature.* 

Light 

Trees, like all kinds of plants and animals, need light, since 
light furnishes the energy required for growth. Different spe- 
cies, however, require light in different amounts. Those which 
are capable of living and growing in comparatively dense shade 
are known as Tolerants. Those requiring nearly full sunlight 
are Intolerants, while between these two extremes may be found 
a group of trees which we might call Intermediates. These are 
moderate in their demands. Most trees can stand more shade 
during the first few years of their life, but need more and more 
light as they mature. The light demands of a given species 
have an important bearing upon the type of cuttings which they 
will endure. 

Among the tolerant trees, beech, sugar maple, spruce, hem- 
lock and balsam might be mentioned. Intolerants would be 
represented by such species as hickory, poplar, Scotch pine, 
Norway pine, tamarack, etc. While some of those classed as 
intermediate in their light demands would be chestnut, red oak, 
ash, white pine, etc. The foresters, by regulating the amount 
of light which reaches the forest floor, can control the species 
which they desire to reproduce. 

Too much light is not desirable, for it is an established fact, 
that the actual elongation of the stem takes place during the 
night, and the effects of excess of light in stimulating limb rather 
than diameter and height growth are well known. 

Moisture 

Forests, like human beings, find abundant moisture indis- 
pensable. In fact, the presence of sufficient moisture in the soil 

* The death of large numbers of trees in Central Park, New York City, is 
largely attributed by the City Forester to insufficient soil depth. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 25 

is one of the determining factors of forest distribution. 
Botanists claim that while extremes of temperature limit the 
range of forests, north and south, in a large continent, their 
distribution, east and west, is determined by the amount of 
moisture available. 

Moisture is necessary for the very life of trees, since they take 
in their plant food in solutions through the delicate root hairs. 
It is necessary for growth, since 90 per cent of the rapidly 
growing parts of a tree are composed of water. The water taken 
in through the roots is combined with the carbon dioxide taken 
in through the leaves (in the presence of the green chlorophyll 
in the leaves) to make plant food. 

The presence or absence of moisture in the forest soil can be 
readily detected by the appearance and form of the tree. On 
moist fertile soils the individuals will be tall and erect, while 
on the thin, dry slopes of a mountain ridge, the stems will be 
short or crooked, indicating their need of both food and mois- 
ture. On sandy and gravelly locations, trees which thrive on 
little moisture, like Scotch, Xorw T ay (red), or pitch pine will 
grow. Hickories and black oaks can endure drought compara- 
tively well, but on account of their deeply penetrating root sys- 
tems, the soil must be comparatively deep if straight stems are 
to be produced. 

The precipitation in New York ranges from thirty-five to 
forty-two inches per year, an amount ample for excellent tree 
growth. While a porous or gravelly subsoil, may in certain loca- 
tions, make the growth of water-needing trees difficult, neverthe- 
less, the moisture supply is adequate for the luxuriant growth of 
all the valuable species common to this climate and latitude. 

Stocking 

The woodlot, like every other crop, is judged not only by its 
quantity but by its quality, and to secure a full stand of trees 
of the- best quality, must be the aim of woodlot management. 
The quality or desirability of a stand is determined by the 
closeness or density of the trees standing in the forest. The 
best quality timber is gathered from tall trees, free from limbs 
and knots, with slow taper or decrease in diameter from the 
butt toward the top. 



26 The New York State College of Forestry 



In a dense stand in a woodlot, there is very keen competition 
between individual trees for light and moisture. Trees in 
crowded stands are taller than those of the same species and 
the same age grown in the open. Crowding in young stands, 
also encourages natural priming and the development of clear 
length. In uncrowded stands, not only is the height growth 
less, but heavy branching is encouraged which is apt to persist, 
thus lowering the value of the tree. In a woodlot, the trees 
should be so spaced, so that the crown of each individual is in 
contact with that of its neighbors. A well crowded stand pro- 
duces a larger number of clear, knot-free, high quality saw logs, 
than does an open stand of the same area. This is vitally 
important, and bears a direct relation to the financial returns 
to be expected from the woodlot. The price of logs of first 
quality is usually from one to two times as much as that paid 
for logs of poor quality. 

The approximate number of trees which should be present on 
a single acre is shown in the following table. The figures are 
applicable to oak, aspen, hickory, elm and ash, but are from 
15 to 20 per cent too low for maple, basswoocl, yellow birch, 
beech, white pine and red pine. 

TABLE I 1 

Number of Trees which Should be Present Per Acre 2 





When Diameter op 


Trees Range 


s From 


When trees 


Diameter 3 


2 to 10 
inches 


2 to 14 
inches 


6 to 18 
inches 


10 to 24 
inches 


are all of a 
uniform di- 
ameter 


Inches 
2 


Trees 4 

400 

180 

105 

65 

50 


Trees 4 
300 
130 
75 
45 
30 
25 
20 


Trees 4 

' '75 
45 
30 
25 

20 
15 

12 


Trees 4 

' '30 

20 

16 

32 

11 

9 

• 8 

7 


Trees 4 
2,000 


4 


900 


6 


510 


8 

10 ...... 


320 
235 


12 


170 


14 






130 


16 


100 


18 


85 


20 


75 


22 


65 


24 


55 


Total per 




800 


625 


000 


113 





1 Data taken from Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 711. 
- Data furnished by Prof. B. L. Sponsler, University of Michigan. 

3 Diameters taken at four and one-half feet from the ground. 

4 Of the respective diameters indicated in the first column. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 27 

From the foregoing;, it may be seen, that each acre of ground 
during a single season receives a certain amount of growing 
energy in the form of soil fertility, moisture and light; the 
latter two vary somewhat from season to season, but for a given 
latitude and climate, the amount of growing energy, heat, light, 
moisture and plant food available for each acre, will remain 
nearly the same. (It is true, however, that a surplus of food, 
for instance, may compensate for lack of light, so that on moist, 
fertile sites, trees may endure more shade — that is, exhibit 
increased tolerance — than on less favorable places) . With a 
constant amount of energy at hand, it is the forester's aim to 
confine this growth to a few hundred chosen trees of desirable 
form and species, rather than permit it to be divided among 
many hundred trees per acre, many of which should be consid- 
ered forest weeds. This idea will explain the theory of 
improvement cuttings. 

Important New York Trees 

From the standpoint of marketing the product, some species 
are much to be preferred to others. White oak and black cherry, 
for instance, have now a greater market value than basswood 
or elm. Too much dependence should not be placed on market 
prices for lumber, but rather the effort should be made to grow 
timber best adapted to each particular soil, situation and local- 
■ ity. That is, endeavor should be actively made to adjust the 
management of the species to be favored with the best or local 
markets for woodland products. Following is a list and brief 
description of the more important species native to the State : 

1. The Softwoods: 

White pine (Pinus strobus). The range of white pine 
is general all through New York State, but it occurred 
in greatest abundance throughout the Hudson valley, and in 
the sand soil north from Schenectady through to Lake 
Champlain. Except on state lands, there is very little vir- 
gin white pine standing in the State, the greater part of it 
being second growth. Early sawmills in the State cut little 
else. The tree is fast growing, being perhaps the fastest of 
native trees. In virgin stands, it grows tall, full boled and 



28 The New York State College of Forestry 

free from limbs for many feet from the ground. The wood 
is of superior quality, being light, soft, compact, straight 
grained, easily worked, and is in high demand for box 
boards, patterns, interior trim, window sashes and doors. 

Red spruce (Picea rubruni). This tree is one of the 
most valuable trees in the State throughout its range. It 
is a northern tree, and is found abundantly throughout the 
Adirondack region and northern ISTew York, and at the 
higher elevations of the Catskills. It prefers cool, damp 
situations with plenty of moisture in the surface layers of 
the soil. The wood is light, soft, lustrous and very strong 
for its weight. On account of its color and long fibre, the 
wood is very much in demand for paper pulp. It is also 
in demand by woodworking concerns for interior and out- 
side trim, sashes and doors. On account of its qualities of 
resonance, spruce is also in great demand for the sounding 
boards of pianos, violins and other musical instruments. 

Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). Hemlock is common 
all through JSe\v York State in cool, well-drained situa- 
tions. It is a tree which endures shade extremely well. 
Given advantage in full sunlight from its youth, it will 
show more rapid growth than spruce or red pine, but once 
accustomed to the shade, it will wither and die on sudden 
exposure to sunlight through the removal of surrounding 
trees. The wood is brittle, coarse grained and splintery. 
It is, however, in great demand for paper pulp, house con- 
struction, boxes and crates and rough furniture. 

Balsam fir (Abies balsamea). Balsam fir is restricted 
to the Adirondack region and northern New York. A 
rather symmetrical looking tree, with a rapidly •tapering 
bole, it is mostly confined to swamps and low flats where 
there is a surplus of soil moisture. The wood is soft, light, 
weak and perishable in contact with the soil. It is used 
mainly for paper pulp, rough construction, boxes and 
crating. 

White cedar (Thuya occidentalis). This is a swamp 
species of conifer. It has a symmetrical, conical form, but 
very little clear length, and is very limby. The wood is 




Figure 2. First Growth White Pine. With the excep- 
tion of the tulip tree, the white pine is the largest tree 
in the eastern forests. Specimens have been found hav- 
ing a diameter of six feet and a height of 250 feet. 



Forestry for the Private Oivner 29 

harsh, coarse and weak, but it is very durable in the soil. 
Its chief use so far as the farmer is concerned is for fence 
posts and fencing, and hence on its own site is a very 
valuable species on the farm. 

Red cedar (Juniperus virginiana). This tree occurs 
scattered throughout old fields and abandoned pastures. It 
is an upland species of cedar as contrasted to the one pre- 
ceding. Its growth is very slow, and it does not attain any 
size. Its chief use is for posts and fencing, although 
superior grades of it command a good price for pencil 
wood, cabinets and chests. 

2. The Hardwoods : 

White oak (Quercus alba). A large, symmetrical and 
beautiful tree which grows to great age and size. It 
prefers deep soils, moderately moist and fertile. The wood 
is very heavy, hard, tough and durable. On account of its 
ability to take a high polish, and the natural beauty of the 
wood, its main use is for high grade furniture of all kinds. 
It is also used for interior finish, flooring, car construction 
and vehicle parts. 

Red oak (Quercus rubra). This tree on favorable situ- 
ations produces a long, regular, full, straight bole with 
a wide spreading crown. It prefers rich, deep, porous, 
well-drained soils. It will not exist on clay soils, and on 
shallow soils is apt to be stunted and of poor form. The 
wood is one of the softest, lightest and easiest to work of 
the oaks. It is one of the fastest growing of the oaks, and 
is a very desirable tree to encourage in woodlot manage- 
ment. It is used mainly in car construction, furniture, 
flooring and planing mill products. 

Black oak (Quercus velutina). This tree develops a 
straighter bole with moderate taper, but shows a tendency 
to fork a short distance from the ground. It is less choice 
in its soil and moisture conditions than other oaks, and will 
grow on all except heavy clays with poor drainage. The 
wood is heavy and coarse, subject to knots and imperfec- 
tions, but is fairly durable. The wood, however, seems 



30 The New York State College of Forestry 

more susceptible to boring insects than does that of other 
oaks. The growth is slower than red oak, about the same 
as for white oak. It seems to be a less desirable tree to 
encourage than either red or white oak, except on the dryer 
upland sites. The wood is used mainly for car construction 
and for agricultural implements. 

Chestnut (Castanea dentata). On account of the bark 
disease chestnut seems to be a doomed tree all through 
]STew York State, and does not seem to be one to be encour- 
aged in woods management. Expert opinion seems to favor 
the removal of the chestnut and the encouragement of some 
more desirable species. It is a rapid growing tree of good 
form on all soils except swamps and heavy lime soils. The 
wood is light, soft, easily worked, rich in tannin and very 
durable in the soil. The wood is mainly used for dairy- 
men's supplies, construction, furniture and the production 
of tannin extract for the leather industry. 

Hard maple (Acer saccharum) . In full stands this tree 
develops a long, straight, clear bole of moderate taper, 
and a full, symmetrical crown. It grows best on moderate 
slopes with a deep, well drained clay or lime loam with 
abundant humus and moisture in the surface layers. This 
tree is also called "sugar maple," because of its use in the 
production of maple sugar. Because of the value of this 
product a growth of sugar maples, in a grove or sugar bush, 
is to be encouraged as a very valuable and productive 
adjunct of any farm. The wood is very heavy, hard and 
of good texture and quality. It is used mainly for boot 
and shoe lasts, flooring, interior finish, musical instruments 
and furniture. 

Red maple (Acer rubrum). This is a very inferior 
tree to the preceding. It is to be encouraged over the 
former mainly in swampy situations subject to periods of 
inundation too moist for the hard maple. The wood is 
coarse, moderately hard and is used mainly in rough con- 
struction and for fuel. A greater use of wood fuel on the 
farms is to be expected in the future than has characterized 
the immediate past. And the encouragement of this 




Figure 3. Sugar Bush in Spring Time. Since colonial time the hard 
maple or "sugar tree" yielded large quantities of sugar. The early 
settlers followed the custom of the Indians in sugaring off the sweet sap. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 31 

species on its own site for this purpose would be a matter 
of good business sagacity and common sense. 

Yellow birch (Betula lutea). This tree is very gen- 
erally distributed throughout New York State, but reaches 
its best development in the forests of the Adirondacks and 
northern New York. It rarely grows pure but occurs in 
mixtures with spruce, balsam, black cherry, sugar maple 
and beech. It is a very well proportioned tree, with a full, 
clear bole and a spreading crown. It is very exacting as 
to soil conditions. It prefers moist uplands with plenty of 
soil moisture in the surface layers. The wood is heavy, 
hard, strong and of good quality. The wood is used mainly 
for flooring, interior trim, furniture and vehicle and imple- 
ment parts. 

Beech (Fagus americana). This is a strikingly beauti- 
ful tree because of its grayish bark and its symmetri- 
cally spreading crown. It occurs in mixed woods in asso- 
ciation with other trees. It is the most tolerant, or shade- 
enduring hardwood, of the northern forest. It occurs gen- 
erally all over the State, but reaches its best development 
in the Catskills, and in northern New York. It will grow 
on most any soil retentive of moisture in the surface layers, 
but does best on rich deep soils of clayey or loamy texture. 
The wood is hard, tough and strong, but very perishable. 
Along with yellow birch and sugar maple it is a very desir- 
able wood for railroad ties, but like them, also, must be 
treated with a wood preservative against decay. The wood 
is used mainly in flooring, interior trim, furniture, handle 
stock, boxes and crates. 

Basswood (Tilia americana). This tree, while it oc- 
curs rather generally all over the State, is more or less 
of a fugitive tree, occurring scattered in stands or mixtures 
with other species. It is not a tree to be encouraged in 
woodlot management, except as it occurs naturally. It 
grows best in moist situations, over deep, well drained, fer- 
tile soil. The wood is light, soft, tough, close grained and 
easily worked. It is much used for barrel heading, loose 
cooperage, planing mill products, furniture and excelsior. 



32 The New York State College of Forestry 

Butternut (Juglans cinerea). In ISJew York State this 
tree is most abundantly found in the lowland hardwood for- 
est in the southern and western parts of the state. The tree 
grows under a wide variety of soil conditions, but only on 
deep fertile soils is it of consequence as a tree. On very 
good soil the bole is long and straight with little taper, but 
on poorer sites, it is apt to be forked very near the ground 
and be otherwise defective. It is extreme in its light de- 
manding requirements. As an object of management the 
tree should only be regarded as a nurse for the development 
of a more tolerant understory. 

Rock elm (Ulmus thomasi). This is the only elm in 
which the main stem extends up through the crown. The 
tree is a large, well-formed tree with a narrow open crown 
and a full bole, much buttressed at the ground. It prefers 
dry, gravelly soils of ridges and glacial eskers, where it is 
often found in mixture with beech, birch, maple, and ash. 
It is very intolerant (i. e., light demanding) and on this ac- 
count, and also on account of its slow growth, in competi- 
tion with other trees, it is often driven to the drier, poorer 
sites. The wood is very close-grained, heavy, hard, strong 
and of high technical value, and is in much demand for 
agricultural machinery, where strength and resistance to 
shear are prime requisites. 

Hickory (Hicoria ovata) . Shagbark hickory is the most 
common and most widely distributed of all the hickories. 
Under favorable conditions it develops a clear, full bole, with 
a short, spreading, round-topped crown. The tree is found 
on a variety of soils, but prefers the fresh fertile soils of 
bottom lands, which have an undoubted clay constituency. 
The growth is comparatively slow, and inasmuch as it is the 
most tolerant of all the hickories it will withstand consider- 
able competition in mixture with other hardwoods such as 
oak, basswood and maple. The wood is very heavy, hard, 
close-grained and tough. On account of its great resistance 
' to bending the wood is in great demand for handle stock for 
implements. 

White ash (Fraxinus americana). Both white and black 
ash grow throughout the state, occurring as scattered indi- 
viduals in moist situations. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 33 

These trees are not very shade-enduring, and throughout the 
sprout hardwood region the white ash, through competition with 
more tolerant trees, is often driven out of its favorite sites on 
to the drier but less crowded situations on the uplands. Ash on 
its own site is a rapidly growing tree, developing a tall straight, 
full bole and a good crown. The wood is heavy, hard, easy to 
split, tough and flexible. It is much in demand for vehicle 
parts and for handle stock where resistance to bending is a 
requisite. It is also used for furniture, planing mill products 
and for agricultural implements. 

Other trees which might be mentioned are Black walnut 
(Juglans nigra) , Black cherry (Prunus serotina) , Elm ( Ulmus 
americana), and Tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera). Be- 
cause, however, of their scattered and fugitive character, they 
are never to be considered a direct object of woodlot manage- 
ment. 

A fuller list of the various uses of our main New York State 
species will be found listed in the Appendix, pages 155-164. 
Before management of the woodlot is undertaken this list 
should be consulted so as to adjust the management of the 
species to be favored with the best or local market for woodland 
products. 

Desirability of Different Species 

As far as farm woodlot management is concerned, the value 
of different species as the one or ones to be favored depends 
principally upon their comparative rates of growth and yields 
per tree and per acre, and the value of money to be received for 
the wood material after it is cut, both for use on the farm itself 
and for sale. 

White pine seems to be the most desirable species to favor 
among the conifers and red oak among the hardwoods. Both 
of these trees exhibit on good soils a quick and rapid growth, 
and the returns from their management will be found very 
profitable. On the best soils in favorable situations there are 
other species which make rapid growth and should be favored 
where the opportunity offers. These species are white ash, bass- 
wood, tulip poplar, black cherry and red pine. On compara- 
tively poor situations, only the hardier species of pine and oak 



34 The New York State College of Forestry 

will survive. Chestnut should rank as a highly desirable species, 
but on account of the blight disease is not a species to be favored 
in management. In the Adirondack^ and the northern New 
York region, white pine and spruce will remain the trees to be 
favored, with the hardwoods beech, yellow birch and hard maple 
on the drier upland sites. 

Growth 

The comparative rates of diameter growth of the most impor- 
tant of our New York species would be about as follows : 

TABLE II 1 



Average number of 
to grow one inch 
diameter 2 


years 
in 


Species 




Yellow poplar. 




Chestnut. 




Black walnut, white pine, red pine, white ash, 




red oak, black oak, aspen. 
Hickory, white oak, basswood, paper birch. 




Red spruce (second growth). 




Hard maple, yellow birch, beech, white elm, 




hemlock, balsam fir. 
Arborvitae. 









1 Table is based on growth of trees in natural unmanaged stands. Under proper 
management, much more rapid growth can be secured, particularly of those species 
in the last four lines. 

2 Table taken from Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 711. 

It will at once be seen that the slower growing species with 
their long time growing period to merchantable size, from an in- 
vestment standpoint, should not be favored in woodlot manage- 
ment. 

Height growth and diameter growth should be taken into con- 
sideration together. It is very important that trees should be 
tall and well formed in proportion to their diameter. Reference 
to the following table will show about the proper relation that 
should exist between the diameter and height of the different 
species at different ages: 



Forestry for the Private Owner 



35 





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36 The New York State College of Forestry 

Appearance of Individual Trees 

Not only should the individual trees show good diameter and 
height growth, but their trunks should he free from limbs except 
near the top. Where a tree is forked near the ground its value 
is very greatly reduced. It is also important that the trunks 
should be sound and free from insect borings and fungus decay, 
both of which greatly reduce the value of the lumber, and may, 
if badly infected, make the tree utterly useless. No insect- 
infected or diseased timber should be allowed to stand, and it is 
a matter of simple silvicultural hygiene to remove such indi- 
viduals as soon as infection is noted. 

Soil Conditions 

In a well-managed, properly-spaced, well-growing woodlot 
very little sunlight should be allowed to strike the ground. Sun- 
light itself causes the ground to dry out and encourages the 
growth of grass and weeds. In a well-shaded woodlot there is 
formed over the surface layers of the soil a rich mulch of 
decayed and semi-decayed organic matter, derived from the 
fallen leaves and twigs, which has a very beneficial effect upon 
the growth and condition of the woodlot. Where grass may have 
started, it should be killed out by increasing the crown cover and 
shading it out. It should never be killed by pasturing. 

Pasturing the woodlot becomes the chief of chief causes of 
its deterioration. The severity of the damage depends upon 
the size of the woodlot and the number of stock. One character- 
istic of a pastured woodlot is its complete, or almost complete, 
absence of young growth. The browsing of cattle and hogs 
quickly means the vanishing of natural reproduction. The 
older trees suffer through wounding and the tramping in of 
their roots, and by the compacting of the soil by the hoofs of 
the stock to a condition where it is absolutely impervious to 
water and water penetration. Only where it is desired to clear 
the woodlot of some brush of undesirable species should cattle 
be allowed to run. 

It is not possible to secure a growth of timber from a woodlot 
and at the same time utilize it for pasture. Grass in a woodlot 
is an almost infallible sign of mistreatment somewhere. Grass 
will not thrive without direct sunlight, and it is only to a lim- 



Forestry for the Private Owner 37 

ited extent that such light reaches the forest floor in a woodlot. 
Pasturage and timber production cannot be carried out on the 
same area, except to the mutual disadvantage of each, and they 
can never be carried out profitably together. The advantage 
of providing shade for stock is without question. Where that is 
necessary a small corner of the woodlot adjacent to the pasture 
land should be fenced off for that purpose only, while the 
remainder can be more profitably devoted to the production of 
timber alone. 

Life History of a Forest 

In order that the growth and development of a forest com- 
munity may be clearly understood, its life history will be traced 
from the beginning. In the majority of cases the farm woodlot 
represents a piece of mature timberland that has been cut over 
again and again, but it will be easier to understand the whole 
cycle, if a start is made with an open field. 

When the early colonists commenced to push out in all direc- 
tions from Plymouth and the coast of New England, things 
other than soil fertility were in their minds. Accessibility to 
existing settlements, safety from Indian attacks, etc., were para- 
mount ; consequently their choice of farm homesteads were not 
particularly happy. To-day, New England is dotted with small 
villages located on ridge and mountain tops, where the soil is 
thin and drainage excessive, whose population is now but a frac- 
tion of what it was fifty or seventy-five years ago. It is in such 
situations as these that the abandoned fields and pastures are 
most numerous, the early tillers of the soil having given up 
their job with their life, and the next generation seeking an 
easier existence in the nearby town or larger city, leaving the 
fields and pastures to become covered with woody growth. 

Picture then a pasture from which the grazing sheep and 
cattle have long since disappeared, or a field abandoned after 
tilling. A nearby forest located on the uncleared hill-top fur- 
nishes wind-blown tree seed of all kinds. Besides, the birds 
assist in bringing in from a distance seeds of berries, shrubs 
and of some trees. A few years after the land has been aban- 
doned, a heavy growth of ferns, raspberry or blueberry bushes 
will have seized the soil, and here and there an occasional bird- 



88 The Neiv York State College of Forestry 

cherry, poplar, gray birch and pine seedling will appear. As the 
years pass, the number of trees per acre increases, gradually 
shading out the low shrubs, the kind depending upon the nature 
of the soil and its fitness as a germination bed for the more com- 
mon species available. If located in a natural pine country, 
sandy soils will permit the ready germination and rapid growth 
of the young pine seedlings, and in parts of New England and 
New York, pine trees appear in neglected fields with amazing 
rapidity. 

At first, each tree has an abundance of room; in fact, there 
may be holes of considerable size where no trees are found. 
These holes are filled during successive seed years, and in the 
course of ten to fifteen years, in a natural pine country, the open 
areas will be completely covered with seedlings of different sizes. 

As they develop, the lower limhs interlace. The leaves on 
these branches die from lack of sunlight. The grass and flower- 
ing shrubs disappear from beneath the trees, and the earth be- 
comes covered with a carpet of needles. Each tree is putting 
forth its best efforts to attain superior height, for in the early 
years of a forest, the race is certainly to the swift. A few trees, 
small and stunted from the beginning, or those whose seed "fell 
upon a stony ground," lag behind. They are soon over-topped 
and soon die from lack of light, or in their weakened condition, 
fall prey to insects or fungus disease. 

As the years pass, tree classes are formed. In the place of 
10,000 trees per acre, all having approximately the same size, 
the numbers have decreased at the end of twenty years, to say, 
1,000. These are tall, dark, green and thrifty, with long inter- 
vals between their whorls of branches, showing that their rapid 
height growth was responsible for their survival. The lower 
branches no longer reach down to the ground as wind and sleet 
storms have whipped off the dead interlacing branches, and 
already the branch scars have almost disappeared. (In case 
the trees stood too far apart, these lower branches would persist, 
and limby trees yielding extremely knotted lumber would 
result). In a few years more, there will be a marked forest 
canopy, a forest floor carpeted with dry, brown needles, dotted 
here and there with grasses and shrubs, where filtered light has 




Figure 4. Second Growth Hardwoods Forest ijst the Sap- 
ling Stage. Ordinarily the forester allows the trees to 
fight their own battle until they are large enough to 
pay the cost of removal. In especial cases "cleanings" 
may be made. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 39 

permitted their development. The forest as a community has 
appeared. 

From about the fortieth year on, the struggle is not so keen, 
as the period of most rapid height growth has passed. Natural 
pruning continues as the lower branches keep dying off and the 
clear lumber is being laid on around the rather knotty heart. 
Diameter growth now becomes more marked, since during the 
earlier part of their life, the trees were more concerned with 
keeping their heads above the forest level. An occasional mem- 
ber of the forest community disappears from one of the many 
causes. Lightning, wind storms, insect or fungus attacks all 
take their toll, but the gap in the forest canopy is soon closed up 
by the comparatively young and thrifty trees. 

A time comes, however, when the forest is no longer young. 
The trunks are now tall, ninety to one hundred ten feet, full 
boled, from two to three feet in diameter, with a stretch of from 
fifty to sixty-five feet to the first large limb (clear length). 
Deaths are more numerous at this time, and a hole in the canopy 
is no longer filled, as the crowns can not easily spread to fill up 
the vacant spaces. 

Instead of a dark forest carpeted only with needles, grasses 
and herbs are quite numerous, and occasional clumps of seed- 
lings are found beneath the openings in the canopy. 

This period, called "silvicultural maturity," when the forest 
begins to perpetuate itself upon the ground beneath, marks the 
beginning of the end. Some of the veterans fall, and many 
prostrate trunks are seen covered with moss and in varied stages 
of decay. The groups of seedlings increase in size and height, 
owing to the widening of the circle by the fall of some of the 
surrounding trees. Soon the forest consists of groups of young 
trees whose edges meet, and towering above are the remnants of 
the former generation. This is the epic of the forest, and the 
land once clear and pastured is again in possession of the forest, 
to all appearances primeval. 

Forest Protection 

Owing to natural agencies, a certain number of losses in the 
members comprising the forest community are unavoidable, and 
in fact, desirable. However, it should be the aim of woodlot 



40 The New York State College of Forestry 

owners to reduce such losses to a minimum, and the losses should 
be confined to such species whose removal will benefit the com- 
position and growth of the stand. Certain agencies, while not 
actually killing the trees, may impair the general health of the 
forest community in such a way as to diminish the growth and 
render it subject to other insidious attacks which may cause 
the death of many of the individual trees, both mature and 
juvenile. 

Fire 

Of all the enemies of the forest, fire is the most destructive 
and at the same time should be the most easily prevented. In 
forest regions far from settlements, a fire started by lightning 
or the camp fire of a hunter or fisherman may rage for hours 
and even days unnoticed. In the average farm woodlot, its 
detection is easy, and its suppression should be immediate. The 
average annual loss to standing timber due to fire in the United 
States approximates $50,000,000, and it is a safe deduction that 
a measurable part of this loss is sustained by the woodlot or 
small forest owner. The chief causes of this loss to the farmer 
are the carelessness of the general public, and, his own ignorance 
regarding the actual amount of damage which even a light 
ground fire does. 

Fire Damage 

The general attitude in the past has been that, unless mature 
trees are killed, the forest has come through practically 
unscathed. This is far from true. Even though the large trees 
may not die at once, the cambium structure, which produces the 
annual layer of wood, may be badly scorched at the base of the 
tree. Several years later the bark may come off exposing the 
burned portion to agencies of disease and decay. In fact many 
a serious outbreak of a severe fungus attack may be traced to a 
severe fire some years previous which apparently did no damage 
at the time. 

Assuming that the spring or autumn has been comparatively 
moist, and the only inflammable material has been the surface 
layer of leaves, is there any harm in letting a forest fire run 
unchecked ? Indeed there is ! In the first place, practically all 




Figure 5. Abandoned Wood Koad in Second Growth Forest, Hudson 
Highlands. By cleaning out old roads and trails as fire lines, the 
safety of forest property can be vastly increased. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 41 

the seedlings under several feet in height will be killed, as their 
bark is not yet thick nor corky enough to withstand the heat. 
All seed which has been lying in the litter and in the top layers 
of soil will be destroyed. These two effects are extremely seri- 
ous, since the coming generation has been wiped out of the 
community. In addition, unless the soil be very damp, a large 
portion of the humus, that dark layer of decomposed leaves and 
twigs, containing the stored-up nourishment of many years — ■ 
will be burned up, and its richness will be washed away by the 
melting snows and the next heavy shower. 

These indirect losses are hard to measure, yet their results 
are clearly appreciable in the form of diminishing numbers, 
increased disease, decreased growth and ultimately a smaller 
cash income. ]STo matter if a woodlot has been burned over 
one or more times, fires should be religiously kept out, as each 
one adds to the damage, especially in rendering the soil unfertile 
and compact and thereby making the new growth extremely 
difficult, to say nothing of tremendously reducing the water- 
holding capacity of the forest cover. On account of its rela- 
tively small size and its usual proximity to habitations, farm 
woodlots can be well protected against serious fire damage. The 
smoke is quickly seen and sufficient help to fight the fire can 
ordinarily be secured. 

If every member of the rural and forest communities of the 
State would endeavor to exercise unusual care in the prevention 
of forest fires and then prompt suppression, if started, this 
phase of forest injury would be markedly decreased. 

Insects* 

The damage inflicted by insects upon small forest properties 
seems slight, as a rule, especially when compared with injury 
sustained by field and orchard crops. However, in the aggre- 
gate the loss is heavy. A careful watch should be kept in order 
that no dangerous insects are allowed to ravage the forest 
unchecked, as it has been the rule that the most severe insect 



* For a full description of the most important insects and their remedies, 
see Bulletin XVI, No. 26, of the New York State College of Forestry, 
"Some Insect Enemies of Shade Trees and Ornamental Shrubs," by Dr. 
M. W. Blackman and W. S. Ellis. 



42 The New York State College of Forestry 

depredations in this country could have been controlled with 
comparatively little effect at the outset.* Consequently, a few' 
of the more important insects will be briefly mentioned, and 
simple remedies given for their control. These remedies may 
be used to protect single trees or small groups, but in many 
cases the measures taken by a single owner will do little good 
in case of a state or county-wide insect invasion. However, 
every forest land-owner should have a general idea of the insect 
problems which threaten the forests of our State. 

The damage inflicted by insects upon forest and shade trees 
consists of six kinds : 

1. Eating the leaves. 

2. Sucking the sap. 

3. Boring into the wood and girdling the tree. 

4. Splitting the twigs, etc., while placing the eggs. 

5. Producing galls. 

6. Attacking fruits, nuts, etc., thus injuring repro- 

duction. 

In each case a different form of attack is necessary to combat 
their efforts. 

Leaf-eating insects. Among the insects which prey upon for- 
est and shade trees and inflict damage or even kill by several 
defoliations, the following may be prominently mentioned: 

The forest tent caterpillar. 
The elm leaf beetle. 
The gypsy moth. 
The brown tail moth. 

The two latter insect pests have not yet gained a permanent 
foothold in this State, but the seriousness of the moth problem 
throughout all New England makes a future attack extremely 
probable. 

In Massachusetts, large estate owners are compelled to spray 
most carefully each season, and it is only as a result of a well- 
conducted campaign carried on by the Federal and State gov- 

* Woodlot owners may send specimens of forest insects and their work 
to the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse. Only in this way 
can accurate advice be given regarding the best methods of control. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 43 

ernments, cooperating with the private forest owners, that the 
gypsy and brown tail moth attacks have been kept in check. It 
is estimated that in Massachusetts alone over $1,000,000 is 
spent each year for moth prevention work. 

Remedies. Any insects which feed upon the leaves of a tree 
may be destroyed by a poison spray — arsenate of lead Sy 2 
pounds to 50 gallons of water being the usual strength. The 
spraying of entire woodlots is hardly practicable except in cases 
of gypsy and brown tail moth infestation mentioned above, 
where it is necessary to prevent further spread. 

Sap-sucking insects. Other insect enemies damage the 
members of the forest community by sucking the sap, thereby 
diminishing its growth and lowering resistance, or if present in 
sufficient numbers, they may kill the trees — the woolly aphis 
often attacking the young and tender shoots of the white pine, 
the San Jose and oyster shell scales, etc. 

Such insects may best be controlled by the use of contact 
sprays like whale oil soap emulsion* or "Black Leaf 40" — one 
part to 800 to 1,000 of water. On small trees these solutions 
can be applied by shaking the solution upon the infested por- 
tions of the tree by means of an old whisk broom. 

Borers. — Still other insects damage shade and forest trees by 
depositing eggs in the succulent parts of the tree, and after 
hatching the grubs, bore channels around the trunk or in the 
young limbs causing the disfigurement, if not the death of that 
part, or the entire tree, due to girdling (cutting off the circula- 
tion). Among examples of such insects may be mentioned 
the white pine weevil attacking the growing shoot (leader) of 
the young and thrifty white pine — the maple sugar borer, the 
hickory bark beetle, the bronze birch borer, the hemlock borer, 
etc. 

In practically all of the cases where the borer is present, it is 
too late for any good remedy. Good forest hygiene is the best 
protective measure — the removal of trees which are of lowered 
vitality — while those which are already infected should be 
removed at the proper time to accomplish the destruction of the 

* See Bulletin XVI, No. 26, The New York State College of Forestry, 
p. 116. 



44 The New York State College of Forestry 

larvae. In some cases, as with a light attack of the maple borer, 
single trees may be saved, by squirting carbon bisulpide in the 
hole and then plugging it np with putty. Or, the grubs may 
be killed by inserting a fine copper wire in the hole, or some- 
times by cutting out the burrow until the grub is. found and 
destroyed. 

In the case of the white pine weevil, considerable damage is 
often inflicted upon the growing shoot or leader of pines in open, 
pure stands. During June and July, many of these leaders may 
be noticed in a wilted condition, and later turn quite brown. 
On being cut longitudinally, many channels are noticed. 
Entomologists recommend the cutting out of these wilted leaders 
during the months of June and July, and collecting them in a 
barrel covered with a finely meshed, screened top. This method 
will permit the small parasites which often infect the larvse to 
escape and later prey upon the coming generation of 
weevils, while the beetles (white pine weevils) themselves will 
be kept confined and die.* 

Fungus Diseases 

The effect of fungi within the forest is not entirely bad. 
Bray has brought out the fact (loco cit) that if it were not for 
the activity of fungi and bacteria, there would be a vast accu- 
mulation of dead but undecomposed material lying upon the 
earth's surface which would render life impossible. 

Such fungi are for the most part saprophytic, and live upon 
the material already dead. The real damage is accomplished 
by the parasitic fungi which attack living trees. 

The remedy for attacks of the bracket fungi, which often 
attack stands of grey birch and poplar, is to cut and remove the 
diseased trees as soon as possible. In fact, practically all fungus 
diseases may be kept in check by this means — keeping the forest 
clean. However, the trees when cut should not be piled in or 
near the forest, as the spores from the infected trees may be 
carried by the wind into a crack in the bark of some fine tree 
only to start its attack afresh. All damaged material should 

* See pp. 45-90, Bulletin XVI, New York State College of Forestry, for 
preventive measures against boring insects. 




Figure 6. A Chestnut Teee Killed by the Blight. This 
fungus disease, introduced from China, has practically ex- 
terminated the chestnut as a forest tree throughout the 
northeastern United States. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 45 

be removed from the vicinity of forest growth and utilized or 
burned immediately. 

Of the fungus diseases now attacking the forests in New York 
State, two are by far the most dangerous: the chestnut blight 
and the white pine blister rust. The former fungus attacks the 
inner bark of the native chestnut, and ultimately causes death 
by girdling the tree. It is a native of China, while the latter 
was introduced into this country from Germany upon planting 
stock used for reforestation purposes. 

The chestnut blight was discovered in New York City in 
1904, and has displayed the greatest virulence. Already it has 
killed practically all of the chestnut trees throughout New Eng- 
land, Long Island, and in the lower Hudson Valley. While it 
seems to be abating somewhat in its spread and the vigor of its 
attacks, nevertheless the outlook for this valuable species is 
extremely dark. 

In many parts of this country, notably in Pennsylvania, 
where a sum of $275,000 was appropriated to combat this dis- 
ease, strenuous efforts were made to prevent its spread but with 
little success. Effort was made by repeated cuttings, followed 
by burning all the infected bark, etc., to control it, but in vain. 
New infection followed, and the disease continued to advance 
until it appears that the chestnut is doomed, since the wide 
spread of the disease, the profusion of spores produced, and 
the ease with which they are disseminated, makes any method 
of suppression practically impossible. 

In the case of the white pine blister rust, while the sudden 
outbreak of what was thought a complete eradication is alarm- 
ing, nevertheless its method of life offers some hope of exter- 
mination, if vigorous methods are taken immediately. The 
spores of the blister rust upon the pine cannot infect another 
pine, but must find lodgment upon a currant or gooseberry bush, 
where they pass the second phase of their existence. From the 
currant or gooseberry they reinfect the nearby pine, and so the 
cycle continues. By inspecting plantations of young pine 
growth in regions where infected material was used, by burning 
all infected trees, and removing host plants of currant and 
gooseberry within a radius of from 400 to 500 feet from such 
a plantation, it is hoped to suppress this serious disease. When 



46 The New York State College of Forestry 

it is realized that the white pine of New York are worth mil- 
lions of dollars, some conception of the problem may be had. 
The federal government is cooperating with the various Eastern 
states, but only by the most vigorous measures, and by the hear- 
tiest cooperation between the federal and State governments 
and private individuals, can this serious disease be suppressed. 

Grazing 

The typical woodlot in New York is considered as an 
adjunct to the pasture, and the average owner can see no harm 
in allowing his cattle to run in the woodland. As previously 
mentioned, horses and cattle nibble the young seedlings and 
trample down hundreds that they do not bite ; in addition, they 
render the soil too compact for easy germination, as the tiny 
rootlets of the sprouting seed can only penetrate mellow soil. 

While it is true that under certain circumstances (a mature 
forest in which regeneration is not immediately needed) pastur- 
ing does little damage, nevertheless, it is undoubtedly true that 
the same piece of soil cannot be made to serve two purposes. 
If additional pasture is needed, and some of the land covered 
by forest is fertile enough to grow good forage, remove the 
trees and sow grass, for as a rule the pasturage produced 
beneath forest shade has little nutritive value. Good timber 
and good grass cannot be grown on the same acre. 

Wind; Snow and Ice 

The elements in some cases cause considerable injury to the 
farm woodlot, but as a rule, any large damage is rare. A violent 
storm may break off limbs or tops and in rare cases uproot 
shallow-rooted trees. A heavy snow or sleet storm may break off 
branches or badly bend and deform young seedlings, but in most 
cases they will soon recover unaided. To avoid such damage on 
exposed situations, cuttings should be made quite light, and, as a 
rule, it is wise in planting or in management to mix windfirm 
species with those that are shallow-rooted and subject to wind- 
throw. In Germany it is customary to plant a wind mantle or 
shelter belt to protect such plantations or stands. 

In general it may be said that a certain percentage of loss in 
a forest community is unavoidable, but it should be the aim of 



Forestry for the Private Owner 47 

every landowner to keep this loss at a minimum by the exercise 
of reasonable care and that at a moderate cost. Extremely 
intensive measures which are practiced by owners of country 
estates may not be economic and should really be charged up to 
landscape improvement rather than to forest protection and 
maintenance. 

Starting the Woodlot 
Upon the majority of farms in New York there is some land 
already covered with forest growth so that the problem to be 
solved is improving the existing woodlot and making it pro- 
ductive and profitable rather than commencing with an open 
field or abandoned pasture. 

Natural Regeneration 

Forests reproduce themselves naturally by seeds and by 
sprouts, but proper conditions must be maintained to permit 
them to carry out these natural functions. 

None of the evergreens native to this state reproduce by 
sprouting, but practically all of the hardwoods sprout during 
their youth, although some seem to lose this habit as they grow 
older. Species like chestnut, maple, the oaks, basswood, etc., 
sprout very well, and to reproduce a forest composed of such 
species is comparatively easy, since a clear cutting, provided it 
has not been deferred until a great age,* will result in a thick 
stand of sprouts coming up from the stumps. Repeated cut- 
tings of sprout forests, called "coppicing," results in a marked 
deterioration of the soil. The earth is unduly exposed to the 
sun's rays, the humus is bleached and burned out, the heavy 
growth of young shoots from each stump further exhausts the 
soil, and after a few generations, holes are found in such a cop- 
pice forest where a stump has failed to send up sprouts owing 
to diminished vitality. In addition, a sprout forest which has 
been repeatedly coppiced tends to go to pieces at an early age, 
so that it is always wise to provide a number of trees of seedling 
origin, during each rotation, to insure continued vigor and 
productivity. 

In the forest, trees produce fertile seed on the average at the 
age of thirty-five to forty. The open grown trees of the same 

* Natural regeneration of woodland from sprouts is best secured before 
the age of sixty is reached. The stump should be cut low and slanting, the 
latter provision preventing early decay in the parent stump from infecting 
the young sprouts. 



48 The Neiv York State College of Forestry 

species may produce seed from ten to fifteen years earlier. 
Seed production is largely a matter of food surplus, so that while 
a little seed may be produced nearly every year, "seed years," 
when large quantities of seed are produced, only come after a 
succession of growing seasons, during which favoring conditions 
of light, heat and moisture have built up in the tree a surplus 
of energy and available material necessary to the production of 




Plate 3. Coppice Foeest Under Standards, showing where a few healthy 
trees of seedling origin have been left in the forest to provide some 
larger sized logs and continued reproduction by seed. 

seed. Such a series of seasons permits the tree to accumulate 
more food than it needs for its annual growth, and this excess is 
consumed in the manufacture of the seed. 

When the seed is ripe, it generally falls, although different 
species have different times to liberate their seed. The poplar, 
willow, elm and soft maple shed their seeds in the spring. 
Pines, spruces, chestnuts and oaks and the majority of the trees' 
shed them in the autumn, while some, like the grey birch, seem 
partial to shedding their seed when the earth is covered with 
snow. 

At whatever time the seed falls, it must ultimately find soil 
and moisture and light conditions satisfactory, else it will not 
germinate. The willow, for example, prefers moist sandbars 




Figure 7. Mixed Hardwood Forest Immediately After an Improvement 
Cutting. Dead, diseased and undesirable specimens have been removed. 
Thus the total growing energy is concentrated upon a few selected stems. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 49 

where full light is available; the poplar and white birch seek 
out burns where the leached ashes generally permit the seed to 
get in close contact with mineral soil. Hemlock and yellow 
birch find congenial conditions wherever there is plenty of soil 
moisture, and are often found germinating upon a moist, rotten 
log. Consequently, if a good "catch" of a desired seeding is 
to be obtained, the soil must be receptive for that species. 

In the natural course of events after a full seed year, the 
ground beneath the openings of the forest is found carpeted 
with a dense thicket of young seedlings, large numbers of which 
perish during the first few years. Those that survive are the 
strongest and deepest-rooted, or the ones whose seed germinated 
upon a favorable spot. Competition is extremely keen during 
the first few years, and each one is trying to surpass its neighbor 
both in crown and in root growth, in order to obtain more sun- 
light and a larger supply of food and moisture. If the clump 
of seedlings is mixed, the species capable of making the fastest 
height growth have a decided advantage, as they will reach above 
and shortly overshadow the slower-growing individuals. Nature 
is always lavish in producing individuals, and so it is only a 
small fraction of the original number which remain alive after 
fifteen or twenty years. This struggle for existence among the 
seedlings occurring as a group beneath a hole in the forest 
canopy, or as a patch of reproduction in a nearby field, continues 
until the age of thirty-five or forty is reached, when the soil is 
firmly held by the most vigorous individuals. They are tall and 
slim, for height growth was more necessary at first than girth, 
and each is nearly the same size as its neighbor. Altogether, 
the several hundred which now occupy an acre represent the 
picked survivors of the thousands which started life upon this 
area. 

From now on the individuals slacken their height growth, and 
begin to increase more rapidly in diameter and volume, while 
the numbers remain about the same. The forest canopy com- 
mences to rise above the ground, due to the clearing of the stem 
by the process of natural pruning, and gradually the middle-aged 
trees pass into forest veterans with short crowns and tall cylin- 
drical stems, having no branches for many feet above the 
ground. At this time, when the trees have passed the stage of 



50 The New Yorh State College of Forestry 

most rapid growth, is the period when forests are said to be 
mature and may be harvested in order to permit another gronp 
of timber to be grown upon that spot. (If mature forests are 
allowed to remain too long, the annual volume growth is 
balanced by the death and fall of an occasional stem, so that it is 
true economy to harvest a stand as soon as it matures.) In 
short, the yield of a virgin forest at maturity is only a fraction 
of what could be produced by scientific handling. Forestry, 
like agriculture, can increase both yields and projects. 

Improvement Cuttings 

From the description of the development of the forest under 
natural conditions, it can be readily seen that Nature, while 
producing superb timber in her virgin forests, is reckless of 
time. It has been computed that from 250 to 300 years were 
needed to produce the average timber tree now coming on the 
market in the form of sawn lumber, while certain species like 




Plate 4. Improvement Cutting. The removal of the diseased pine, the 
worthless dogwood, the dead tree in the foreground, the suppressed 
maple, the crooked and suppressed white oak and red oak will not only 
increase the growing space available but also greatly improve the 
growing condition of the stand. 




Figure 8. Mixed Hakdwood Forest Five to Six Years Aeter an Improve- 
ment Cutting. Remaining trees have increased their growth in height 
and in diameter, since plant food, moisture and sunlight have been made 
available in larger quantities. Seedling and sprout reproduction has 
come up beneath their shade. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 51 

oak, longleaf pine and redwood may have taken a much longer 
period. When tending the forest, man plans greatly to reduce 
this time by shortening the struggle for existence. The unde- 
sirable and unfit specimens are removed by cutting, instead of 
permitting them to drag out their existence over a considerable 
period during which they will be continually robbing the leading 
trees of a portion of the food, moisture and growing energy. 
All growth should be concentrated upon the comparatively few 
selected trees of desirable form and species, which are to be the 
final harvest from the woodlot. This is the key to all cultural 
operations carried on and in an immature forest.* 

The cuttings made in an immature stand are intended either 
to improve the mixture, increase the growth rate, or both. They 
may be grouped under two heads : 

I. Cleanings. 
II. Thinnings. 

I. Cleanings. By a cleaning is meant the removal of unde- 
sirable species and individuals from a very young stand — say, 
from two to ten years old — for the purpose of improving the 
mixture. In a piece of young sprout woodland, a cutting, made 
usually with a brush hook or light hatchet, would tend to favor 
seedlings over sprouts — straight thrifty individuals over the 
bent and slow growing "weed trees," like hornbeam, blue beech, 
pepperidge, etc. — and to cut out such weed trees or inferior 
species as gray birch, hornbeam, blue beech, black oak, etc., 
and give more room to the faster growing desirable trees of high 
technical value like ash, basswood, tulip poplar, white pine, 
spruce, red oak, etc. On account of the small size of the 
material removed, there can be no revenue derived from such 
a cutting ; in fact, if labor is hired it may cost from fifty cents 
to two dollars and fifty cents per acre to properly clean a 
young stand. As previously stated, however, it is not desirable 
to invest any large sum of money in woodlot culture. Clean- 
ings, thinnings, and final cuttings can be successfully made with- 
out technical supervision by any one who knows the different 
trees and will keep the general ideas of growth in mind. It is 

* Cuttings in a mature forest to remove the final crop and to prepare for 
natural generation will be described in another chapter. 



52 The New York State College of Forestry 

simply a matter of removing the weed trees and permitting the 
desirable species and individuals to make the most profitable 
growth. (See diagram.) 




Plate 5. Cleanings. The removal of the four individuals of undesirable 
species or character will give more room for the growth and develop- 
ment of the other components of the stand, whose desirability is 
characterized by more rapid growth and a higher technical value of 
products. 

II. Thinnings. In the case of many woodlot owners, such 
an intensive operation as a "cleaning" seems impossible and a 
useless undertaking. However, many a forest owner has spent 
seven to ten dollars per acre in planting upon abandoned pas- 
ture with pine, when three dollars per acre, spent for the removal 
of gray birch from an old field, seeding into pine, would have 
produced equally good results. For those, however, owning a 
large amount of forest land and having little extra labor, it 
might be well to let the individuals in the forest community 
fight it out among themselves until the saplings become large 
enough to repay the cost of removal — say twenty-five to thirty 
years — when a thinning may be made. 

At this time three classes will have formed, and already the 
trees which will form the final harvest can be picked. To assist 
these individual trees by cutting away crowding neighbors of 
valueless species, or by removing hopelessly suppressed trees 
which are diverting food, moisture and growing energy from 
the thrifty leaders, is but the part of good judgment. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 



53 




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54 The New York State College of Forestry 

In a sprout hardwood forest, if an early cleaning which 
would cut out all but three to five of the best sprouts per 
clump were out of the question, it would be possible to let the 
dozen or more sprouts per stump grow untouched until the 
smaller were large enough to make fence posts or small cord- 
wood. Then a thinning could be made in which all but two or 
three of the tallest and straightest stems growing from a single 
stump were cut away allowing them to utilize all the growing 
energy of the wide-spreading root system. This process could 
be repeated every five to eight years, and it is claimed that 
instead of taking forty-five to fifty-five years to grow chestnut 
railroad ties, such thinnings, by reducing competition and forc- 
ing growth into a fewer number of selected stems, has produced 
the same size material in ten years less time. The same idea, 
with approximately the same result, can be carried out in any 
sprout forest. 

In a pine or spruce stand, thinnings are frequently needed, as 
nature often sows the seed much too thickly for rapid growth. 
While it is true that splendid knot-free timber is produced as a 
result of close sowing or planting (natural pruning being started 
at an early age owing to the speed with which the lower branches 
interlace) too close planting is' a drawback. In dense pine or 
spruce thickets, a cleaning would be very advantageous in 
shortening the struggle for existence. If neither time nor 
money is available, the forest may be left until bucket stock or 
pulpwood size is attained, and then a thinning can be made. 

With these two species, a cutting called the "French Method" 
can be used. This consists in going over the forest at say from 
twenty-five to thirty-five years and selecting from the 600 to 
800 stems which are found upon an acre, 250 or 300 specimens 
which are the tallest and straightest and making the best growth. 
These 250 are picked to form the final crop. All trees interfer- 
ing with these selected specimens are cut away to hasten their 
growth, but the trees which are not competing or hindering them 
are allowed to remain as it is never wise to open too large holes 
in the canopy nor to expose too much of the forest floor at one 
time, as growth will he severely checked. Not more than 20 to 
25 per cent of the trees should be removed at any one time. In 
order to keep the forest producing timber at its maximum 




Figube 9. Geottp Cutting in Mixed Forest. A clump of mature decrepit 
hardwoods has been removed. White pine reproduction will be assured 
by the presence of seed trees of that species on the margin of the 
opening. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 55, 

capacity, the forest floor should be kept "dark," i. e., a minimum 
of light should be permitted to reach the soil beneath the trees, 
since light brings weeds and grass, which tend to rob the trees 
of plant food and moisture. 

A similar operation may be performed every five to ten years 
until the final harvest. The material removed at the first thin- 
ning may just pay for the cost of removal, but each succeeding 
thinning should show an increased return, while the financial 
gain in shortening the rotation, in growing barn boards or first 
grade saw timber in fifty-five years, instead of seventy, will 
abundantly repay the cost. 

Pruning 

Whether or not it is desirable or profitable to remove green 
branches to make clear lumber is a mooted question. In certain 
parts of Massachusetts, mill owners cutting in second-growth 
pine affirm that artificial pruning undoubtedly produces loose 
knots in the lumber sawed from such trees, owing to the rapid 
drying out of the knot inside the tree. 

The Forester at Baltimore attempted to obviate this draw- 
back by cutting off with an axe the lower limbs of his young 
pines, leaving a stub six to eight inches long. Four or five years 
later, men were sent through this area again cracking off these 
stubs, now dead and dry, with the poll of the axe. The annual 
rings laid on thereafter were free from knots, and the more 
gradual drying out of the knot, as well as the speed and economy 
with which this form of pruning could be accomplished, makes 
it sound feasible and possibly profitable. 

Reforestation* 

While the artificial starting of forests has been quite popular 
in New York with a certain type of land owners, farm owners, 
as a rule, do not plant up large areas with seedlings or trans- 
plants. Most of them already own more or less woodland, and 
quicker returns may be obtained by improving the mature wood- 
lot, which has already a certain amount of forest capital 
standing upon it, rather than by starting a new forest which 

* Stephen, John W., Making Best Use of Idle Lands in New York. Cir- 
cular 19, New York State College of Forestry. 



56 The New York State College of Forestry 

will not yield cash returns for some years. However, in com- 
mon with other permanent land owners, reforestation offers to 
the farmer an admirable solution for the problem of idle land. 

The points in favor of reforestation are as follows: 

1. It puts the idle land to work. The census of 1910 
proved that there were 7,000,000 acres within ISTew York 
State inclosed within fences which the owners themselves 
declared to be idle. Assessing such land at $5.00 per acre, 
the total capital of the New York farmer invested in idle 
land amounts to $35,000,000, which, at 4 per cent, is capa- 
ble of earning $1,400,000 per year. The permanent pros- 
perity of any state or nation can only be secured by the 
full and proper utilization of all resources, and the planting 
of lands now unproductive would in a comparatively short 
time change them from liabilities to assets. 

2. The appearance of the property is greatly improved, 
thereby adding to its market value in case of sale. Any 
one experienced in real estate realizes that an attractive 
woodlot or young plantation is infinitely preferable both in 
appearance and cash value to a rocky slope or a creek 
bottom subject to overflow. Appearance as well as real 
estate value and future cash value are all improved by 
planting up such sites. 

3. Plantations will at the end of the rotation show a 
profit in excess of 5 per cent compound interest, even based 
on present timber prices. 

Forestry is essentially economic and the financial results of 
planting non-agricultural land in older countries compare quite 
favorably with other long term investments. In fact every per- 
manent owner of land will find the appearance, the present and 
future sale value of his property increased by planting forest 
seedlings.* 



* Land should be cheap and the planting costs should be kept moderate 
from $7 to $10 per acre if the above return is to be obtained. For further 
information regarding planting, see Circular 19, New York State College 
of Forestry. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 57 

Another phase of forest planting that could well be adopted 
by the woodlot owner is underplanting. It has already been 
shown that where natural regeneration is incomplete, following 
the cutting out of a woodlot, desirable species may be introduced 
by planting young seedlings or transplants in groups in order 
that the proper mixture be obtained. The same idea can be 
carried out in youiiger stands, especially those of sprout origin. 
In this way new blood in the form of coniferous stock may be 
introduced in run down woodlots. 

While two-year-old seedlings will serve in an open field 
having sod of only moderate thickness, three- to four-year- 
old transplants are required where the sod is thick or the 
trees overhead may suppress the planted material. 

In addition the old trees on an area to be underplanted 
are likely to absorb a great deal of moisture through their 
wide spreading root systems. Thus for several reasons the 
hardier, stockier transplant is more desirable. 

As a rule it is hardly safe to attempt underplanting if 
more than 0.6 of the surface is already covered by trees. 
Pine transplants may be used in the larger openings while 
spruce, Norway or native red spruce can stand more shade. 
The former species require less moisture than the latter. 

This phase of underplanting would consist of planting 300 
to 500 evergreen transplants (depending upon the ground cover 
and amount of shade) in among the hardwoods, placing the 
plants in groups five to six feet apart each way, or five to six 
feet from the nearest sprout.* Thus a complete stand could 
be secured at a minimum cost, for the young hardwood sprouts 
will furnish sufficient side shade to stimulate height growth, and 
could be removed with a brush hook when they threaten to choke 
out the conifers. 

Experiments have been made with this type of underplanting, 
and it has been found that each plant costs about three-quarters 
of a cent in the ground. Six hundred per acre would cost $4.50, 
and the subsequent cost of labor, brushing out around the ever- 

* The farmer possessing the land, the time, the equipment, etc., should 
handle his woodland so as to make it yield. He is in an unusually good 
situation to grow desirable timber crops at a minimum of expense. 



58 The New York State College of Forestry 

greens would still bring the cost considerably below that of a 
pure plantation, and a mixed forest of highly desirable species 
would be the result. In this, as in all other operations con- 
nected with getting a forest started and bringing it to maturity, 
if the crop idea is kept in mind, there should be no difficulty in 
understanding and carrying out the necessary steps. 

Aesthetic Considerations 

The foregoing recommendations of the trees to be favored 
when cuttings are made were based upon economic considera- 
tions—that forests are owned and managed primarily for reve- 
nue. Frequently, however, forest owners are found who own 
their woodland primarily for beauty, and to such, the above 
recommendations might not directly appeal — though all well- 
kept mature forests are beautiful. Estate owners often select 
trees for their form, for their foliage, flowers, etc., and to such, 
the classification of dogwood as a weed-tree would seem prepos- 
terous. Between these two extremes there is a mean which 
owners may strike by handling certain portions of their estate 
as a producing forest, while the parts along the drives and 
walks, or those visible from the house, can be kept in their 
natural state. 

For adding to the appearance in winter, evergreen trees 
should be favored. Pines and spruces have already been recom- 
mended for their technical value and rapid growth, but as an 
ornamental tree, hemlock is probably superior to the other two 
conifers, on account of its graceful foliage. Economically, it is 
not strongly recommended on account of its slow growth, yet in 
proper locations, its presence in the mixed forest is to be desired. 

In spring, no tree can surpass the dogwood in beauty, and in 
prominent situations its presence and reproduction may well be 
encouraged. In the fall, a variety of trees appear to their best 
advantage from an aesthetic viewpoint. Scarlet oak, red maple, 
pepperidge (Nyssa sylvatica) and beech all add to the color of 
the woods. Other species with graceful form like the elm can 
be encouraged for year-round charm, especially along roadways 
or to frame an attractive view. Such trees as the above may 
be spared and encouraged with but little financial loss in many 
cases, but in each instance there should be a clear differentiation 



Forestry for the Private Owner 59 

in the mind of the owner, which items of expense should be 
charged to economic forestry and which to landscape improve- 
ment. 

Under ordinary circumstances, however, pruning is an inten- 
sive operation quite beyond the reach of the average woodlot 
owner. If pruning a nearby piece of woodland will add to its 
attractiveness, it may well be pruned. As a general proposition, 
it is better to charge the cost of such an operation against 
"landscape improvement" rather than against "forestry." 



CHAPTER IV 

HARVESTING THE WOODLOT 

While it has been said that no tree ever dies a natural death, 
nevertheless there comes a time in the life of every piece of 
woodland when it should be harvested to avoid loss. Its height 
growth may have ceased, its volume growth may have greatly 
diminished, there may be an unsually large number of dying 
trees ; or an unusual demand for lumber may make it desirable 
to reap the mature trees while the prices are high (since the 
forest crop, being imperishable, may be held back until the 
market conditions are right). In deciding to reap the forest 
crop, two points should be kept in mind: 

1. Unless of pronounced agricultural value, the woodlot 
should be cut in such a manner as to keep it producing 
forest materials of the best kind. If the land is compara- 
tively level and fertile, it may be cleared and planted to 
field crops as needed because sound economics demand that. 
If sufficient tillable land is already owned, it may be 
allowed to remain as a woodlot. 

2. The amount and approximate value of the woodlot 
products should be known before the cutting is started. 

Reproduction Cuttings 

While foresters group cuttings made for the purpose of start- 
ing new growth under several heads, for the sake of simplicity, 
they will all be treated as belonging to one of two classes : 

1. Clear cuttings, followed either by natural or arti- 

ficial reproduction. 

2. Harvest by repeated cuttings. 

1. In the case of clear cuttings under intensive management, 
large areas are often cut clear with the exception of from five 

Note. — Concerning the methods of estimating the amount and value of 
forest products, see Chapter V. 

[60] 



Forestry for the Private Owner 



61 




Plate 7. Reproduction Cutting. Before the cutting, and showing the 
trees of the less desirable character which are to be removed. 




Plate 8. Reproduction Cuttings. After the cutting, showing the seed 
trees left of desirable species and the reproduction increased both in 
size and amount. 



62 The New York State College of Forestry 

to twenty seed trees per acre which are allowed to remain in 
order to seed up the cut-over areas. Or, alternate strips may 
be cut clean, the uncut strips supplying the desired seed trees. 
In woodlot management, however, clear cutting on a large scale 
is hardly desirable, except in the case of maple swamps being 
handled for cordwood or vigorous young sprout hardwoods 
which can also regenerate from the stumps. The plan of remov- 
ing the final crop during several winters by successively thin- 
ning the stand is much more beneficial as far as the soil is 
concerned, and fills in better with the regular farm work. How- 
ever, in the case of an old, badly mutilated woodlot where all 
but a few score trees per acre have been cut, where seed produc- 
tion is slight, and the soil is too compact for easy regeneration, 
clear cutting followed by planting with the desired species is 
the best solution. 

2. The method of "repeated cuttings" is the best method of 
harvesting the woodlot when all the needs of the average owner 
are considered, for: 

It permits the woodlot work to be distributed over a 
number of seasons, rather than rushing it in one season. 

It allows the sale of limited quantities of timber to the 
local market. 

It supplies a sustained income. 

It gives work to horses and men during the winter 
season when other farm work is slack. 

Thus while silviculturally other methods of reproducing the 
forest crop might be more desirable, the plan of harvesting the 
largest trees or mature groups of trees (these groups will have 
to be made quite large in the case of light-demanding species) 
will prove the most practicable from an economic standpoint. 
It is true in forestry as in agriculture,, only those methods 
should be recommended which are practical and financially 
sound. 

Consider then the problem of starting with a mature woodlot 
of average condition (for cuttings in immature stands, see 
Chapter III), and it should be realized that much more can be 
done with a mature woodlot even though somewhat run down 
than is often appreciated. 




Figure 10. Clear Cutting in Soft Maple Swamp. Owing 
to its excellent sprouting capacity, soft maple stands can 
clear cut to advantage. A large mean annual growth is 
thereby secured. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 63 

Marking the Trees for Removal 

Having decided upon logging the woodlot during a given 
winter, the land should be looked over during the fall before the 
snow has fallen, and the points of attack selected. It may be 
necessary to start the cuttings at several points which in the 
course of a few seasons will merge. 

The ripe timber which is no longer increasing rapidly in 
volume, or may even be deteriorating in quality, should be 
marked for removal. It is quite common to blaze these trees 
with a marking axe, and to be on the safe side, a stencilled 
marking hatchet may be used. If the trees are blazed twice, 
once about four feet from the ground and again six inches above 
the ground, it is easy to detect the removal of unmarked trees. 

As previously stated, much of the neglect and present small 
value placed upon the woodlot results from the poor financial 
yield obtained from the sale of its products. This is almost 
entirely due to the inefficient methods of marketing adopted in 
disposing of them. Woodlot owners, and even experienced por- 
table mill operators, often commence cutting without any idea 
of whether the market is glutted or empty ; whether hemlock or 
oak is in greatest demand; whether inch stuff or dimension 
material is needed. In most cases, the lumber is sawed in the 
dimensions which are easiest for the sawyer, and as a conse- 
quence, there is often a large pile of material left on hand at 
the end of the season which could have been readily sold had it 
been sawed in some other size. In forestry, as in agriculture, 
the difference between profit and loss often lies in the way the 
products of the soil are marketed. 

Study the market before marking the trees. 

Many small forest owners, ignorant of lumber markets and 
prices, will claim that such a marketing problem is beyond them. 
However, it will take only a little time and a few letters, and 
the difference in cash returns will repay the effort many times 
over.* 



* The Utilization Service of The New York State College of Forestry at 
Syracuse maintains a selling list by which it endeavors to bring together 
the producer and consumer of forest products. If this is not sufficient 
assistance, the College of Forestry stands ready to send out trained for- 
esters to inspect woodlots within the State and to make recommendations 
concerning their management and marketing. 



64 The New York State College of Forestry 

In some cases, undoubtedly the shortage in labor, teams, 
equipment, etc., may make it impossible for an owner to do his 
felling, skidding, etc., himself. It may be necessary for him to 
let out all or part of these operations. In such cases, there 
should be a written agreement concerning the methods to be used 
by the contracting party, rate per thousand board feet for piling, 
skidding, hauling, sawing, etc. ; even then it is valuable for the 
owner to know the value of the final product, the cost of each 
operation and the margin of profit upon each step. 

In an ideal case, the steps from the stump to the mill at least 
would be carried on by the owner or his employees, and thus a 
satisfactory check could be kept upon the work. Low stumps 
could be cut, as the woodsmen's saying, "One foot in the butt 
is worth four in the top," holds approximately true. The 
crowns above the portion of the trunk suitable for saw-logs 
should be utilized as far as possible. Posts, props, cord wood, 
etc., should be cut from the tops not only for the greater revenue 
that will be derived but also because closer utilization of the top 
wood means the removal of a large part of the inflammable 
material, rendering fires less likely, and far less severe if they 
do occur, and also will make natural regeneration more certain. 

In felling the trees, care should be taken that the stump is 
low (not higher above the ground than a distance equal to the 




Plate 9. Logging Lizard. A home-made sledge for skidding logs on the 
farm woodlot. Its low carriage enables one man to handle heavy logs 
with ease. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 65 

diameter of the tree is a very good rule to follow) ; that the 
undercut is sufficiently deep to avoid a bad splintering of the 
butt log; and that the trees are dropped so as to cause a mini- 
mum of damage to the young growth. 

Carelessness in "bucking up" the tree into log lengths often 
causes considerable loss, and the felling crew should be watched 
to be sure that the trunk is cut into proper log lengths which will 
yield a maximum of timber. It is customary to allow two to 
four inches extra in log lengths to provide for checking on the 
ends of lumber, but to cut from seven to nine inches over the 
proper length means unnecessary waste. 

In addition, the log lengths should be measured off with 
regard to crooks in the trunks, as often much waste in slabbing 
is caused by a crook in the middle of a log. With proper super- 
vision all these can be secured, and in case any of the cutting 
and skidding are done by contract, penalties for gross careless- 
ness should be provided. 




Plate 10. Log Making. Good log making is a requisite of good forest 
management. Avoidance of crook in cutting up a tree into logs saves 
a great deal of waste in slabs and sawing. 

The sawing may be arranged for, either at a nearby stationary 
mill, or, if the season's cut is sufficiently large, a portable mill 
may be brought to the woodlot. Ordinarily a job of from 
50,000 to 75,000 feet will warrant bringing in a mill. If a 
single woodlot will not supply this amount, several adjoining 
owners may arrange to cut their timber at the same time, and 
this will make it worth while for the mill owner to. "set up." 

3 



6Q The Neiv York State College of Forestry 

Unless the stumpage owner has had unusual experience, it is 
better for him to hire an experienced sawyer, since sawing by 
an inexperienced man is a slow operation and results in reduc- 
ing the grade of much good lumber. 

If the owner desires to provide winter work for his teams and 
employees, he can agree to fell, buck, skid and haul logs to the 
sawmill at a fixed price per thousand board feet. This will 
insure careful felling and avoid injuring young trees, since the 
"brush" and saplings of to-day are the timber trees of 
to-morrow. 

It is not only necessary to manufacture lumber with care, to 
see that the machinery is properly adjusted, that no "thick and 
thin boards" are sawed, etc., but the treatment after sawing is 
equally important if the full profit is to be derived from the 
woodlot products. 

Sawing to Bill 

In the first place, it is imperative to know just what amount 
of lumber to saw of each dimension. Some portable mill own- 
ers, as soon as they have estimated the contents of a piece of 
woodland, will attempt to sell the timber before they have even 
purchased it, and the most successful operators always dispose 
of the majority of their stumpage before they start to saw. This 
permits them to make out a list or bill of the amount of timber 
of each size and species for the guidance of the sawyer. Such 
foresight insures the sale of all the timber at a good price, since 
just the sizes in demand will be turned out. A livays saw to bill. 

Grading 

Another point frequently overlooked by the average owner is 
the matter of grading. In addition to poor sawing, lumber 
manufactured at a small mill usually brings a lower price than 
the same material sawed at a large mill, because it is not graded. 
All sorts, conditions and sizes are usually lumped together, with 
the result that the price usually offered for ungraded mill run 
is just about what the poorest in the pile is worth. In one case, 
where lumber of a species commanded $24 per thousand board 
feet, mill run, the operator received as high as $40 per thousand 
for his better grades and raised the average price per thousand 
for that species over $30. Grading pays. 




Figure 11. Portable Saw Mill. While the average portable mill is not 
as efficient as a fixed mill with modern band saws, good results can be 
obtained by careful management. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 67 

Stacking and Seasoning 

By the inexperienced, piling and seasoning are regarded as 
unimportant parts of the process of lumbering, yet as much 
money may be lost by careless piling as in any other part of 
the business, since poor piling means the reduction in strength 
and quality, and in some cases where rot sets in, there may be 
total loss. 

Free circulation of air is necessary for proper seasoning, so 
the piles must be placed upon a site having good air drainage, 
and each board in the pile should be slightly separated from its 
neighbor to permit the gradual evaporation of water. Ordinar- 
ily, about one-half the weight of wood is water, and full season- 
ing reduces the shipping weight as well as adding to the strength 
and freedom from warping. Cheap piling is poor economy. 

Cost of Manufacture 

Manufacturing costs of the various steps in lumbering a 
woodlot in different parts of New York will, under normal 
labor conditions, average as follows (depending on local 
conditions*) : 

Per M. bd. ft. 

Felling and sawing into log length $1 25 — $1 75 

Skidding ( hauling to mill ) „ 1 50 2 50 

Sawing 5 0— 6 00 

Piling 75— 1 00 

Hauling (depending on distance) 4 00 — 6 00 

Total $12 50— $17 25 



After the saw timber has been skidded, the top wood should 
be worked over. In some parts of the State, the tops and stand- 
ing cull timber may be sold at a given price per acre to the 
owner of a small gasoline "buzz" mill. In such cases, the price 
is fixed, depending on the amount and quality of material left 
and upon the local demand for cordwoocl. 

In most cases, however, the owner will either have the work 
done by day labor or pay a given price per piece for the manu- 

* On account of unusual labor conditions it is difficult to obtain figures 
for the various steps in manufacture which will hold true for any length 
of time. The above costs were gathered in March, 1920. 



68 The New York State College of Forestry 

facture of the various products. These prices will range as 

follows : 

Ties: Hewing— Firsts $0 35— $0 55 

Seconds 25— 30 

Hauling 15 

Switch ties: Hewing 1% cents per. running foot 

Cordwood: Cutting and stacking $2 to $3 per four-foot cord 

Pulpwood 

In regions where pulp mills are located, such species as 
poplar, spruce, balsam and hemlock can be most profitably mar- 
keted as pulp bolts. The cost of production in these regions 
range as follows: 

Poplar : 

Cutting $1 25— $2 25 per cord 

Peeling and piling 1 75 — 2 00 per cord 

Hauling 3 50 — 4 50 per cord 

Spruce and balsam: 

Cutting $1 25— $2 25 per cord 

Peeling and piling 1 75 — 2 25 per cord 

Hauling 3 50 — 4 50 per cord 

Hemlock : 

Cutting 1 50 — 2 50 per cord 

Peeling and piling 1 75 — 2 50 per cord 

Hauling 3 50 — 4 50 per cord 

Hemlock bark 18 00 per cord 

On account of the tremendous shortage of pulp stock that pre- 
vails at present, such products as the above can be marketed at 
a splendid profit. In fact, many of the -largest spruce operators 
of New York and JSTew England have for the past few years 
been turning all of their timber, large and small, into pulp, 
finding that product much more profitable than saw timber. 

Close utilization of small timber is proving financially desir- 
able to the largest timber owners, and in the case of the small 
owner, the sale of such material as posts, cordwood, roller stock, 
etc., may pay the entire logging costs, leaving the saw timber as 
"velvet." Above all,, such close utilization leaves the woodlot 
in better shape from the standpoint of appearance, ease of regen- 
eration and diminished fire risk. 

Brush Disposal 

When the last saw logs have been skidded, there is usually a 
large accumulation of branches, hollow butts, smashed tops, etc., 



Forestry for the Private Owner 69 

cumbering the ground. To clear up this debris is an important 
problem, since slash of this kind is not only a bad fire menace, 
but often prevents both seed and sprout regeneration. Good 
management demands that the ground be cleared as soon as 
possible. The longer and straighter sticks can be used for fence 
posts and props, while the shorter pieces may be used as orchard 
props, stakes, etc. Hollow butts, large limbs, crooked trunks, 
etc., may be sawed into cord and stove wood. Ordinarily such 
an operation will leave comparatively little material behind that 
will long be inflammable, since the smaller hardwood brush 
becomes soggy after a few winters. 

In the case of clear cuttings in hardwoods, or where heavy 
stands of pine, spruce or hemlock have been cut the heavy brush 
remaining constitutes a more complex problem. Hardwood tops 
are often piled in windrows and burned in the spring when the 
ground is too moist to permit the spread of fire. 

The question of whether to burn or merely pile the brush is 
a matter for each owner to decide, depending upon the condi- 
tions which obtain in his own woodlot. They all, however, 
increase the logging cost, the prices for brush disposal ranging 
from twenty cents to fifty cents per thousand board feet of lum- 
ber cut. This expenditure must be considered as a form of 
insurance, as the remaining timber is rendered more safe and 
the forest as a whole is, in the long run, much more productive. 

Regeneration 

The idea underlying forest management is to raise repeated 
crops of the most valuable timber upon soils unsuited to agricul- 
ture. Thus the aim of harvesting mature timber is not only to 
obtain revenue from selling the forest products, but also to 
make room for the young seedling which will produce the next 
crop of timber. If the starting of new growth is not secured by 
the cuttings, the operation, from a forestry point of view, has 
not been a complete success, no matter how much revenue has 
been obtained. If the land is level and fertile it may be wise 
to clear cut, pull the stumps and add the area to the tilled or 
pastured lands, but on the typical New York farm, the woodlot 
now largely occupies land unsuited to tillage or pasture. Inten- 
sive forestry practice demands that cuttings be timed according 



70 The New York State College of Forestry 

to the seed production of the species to be favored. However, in 
ordinary woodlot management it is necessary to plan the logging 
with regard to local market conditions and the labor situation 
upon a given farm. The reproduction resulting may not be so 
successful, but a little assistance later on will generally give the 
kind of regeneration desired. (See Cleanings, p. 51.) 

Species to be Favored 

To specify in a general publication the exact trees each pri- 
vate owner should favor upon a given site is an extremely 
difficult proposition. It depends not only upon the section of 
the State in which the woodland is located, but upon the ques- 
tion of site, such as soil and moisture conditions, elevation, 
topography, etc., and upon local demand as well. Specific rec- 
ommendations can be made only after a careful examination 
made upon the ground, but general suggestions can be made 
which should prove helpful. 

Species possessing the best qualifications should be favored 
during the harvest either by leaving a sufficient number of seed_ 
trees and cutting out nearby trees of lesser value quite heavily 
or by underplanting these species after the mature timber is 
removed. The more desirable qualifications would be as 
follows : 

1. Species common to the site and region should be 
encouraged, and native trees should be given preference 
over foreign trees in planting. 

While it is true that in certain parts of the State either 
pine or spruce, for instance, will thrive, it is safe to say that, as 
a rule, the species found in larger numbers are generally better 
suited to the region. (This rule does not always hold, however, 
since in certain cases of two species, the more valuable may have 
been most heavily cut, and so may have largely disappeared from 
the region. Yet it would grow and flourish if planted. An 
excellent instance of this state of affairs is furnished by the 
absence of pine in the Hudson highlands.) 



Forestry for the Private Owner 71 

2. Trees should be both fast growing and technically 
valuable. 

Certain species like the white oak, for instance, yield timber 
of great value and beauty, yet its slow growth (estimated at 
about one inch in diameter for each ten years) makes it unde- 
sirable as the principal tree in a woodlot. 

3. Species favored should be comparatively free from 
insect and fungous attack. 

While it is true that practically no species is entirely immune, 
yet certain ones succumb much more readily than others. The 
chestnut, while fast growing and technically valuable, should 
not be favored throughout its range on account of the chestnut 
blight — Endothea parasitica — which is proving so fatal to this 
species. In the same way, mixed plantations of red and white 
pine are to be preferred to pure white pine plantations until 
the outcome of the white pine blister rust can be predicted. 

4. The trees to be favored should furnish products 
which are and will be in demand in that particular locality. 

Just as raising fruit in a wheat country often means difficulty 
in disposing of the products, so may the sale of pulpwood in a 
box shook district often present difficulties. It is not possible to 
foresee the market demands at the end of the rotation, but the 
past demands and present industries may be taken as a guide. 

From the above rules each owner can form a general idea of 
which species to reproduce and which species to eliminate from 
his woodlot by means of skillful cuttings. Where clear cuttings 
are practiced, five to ten seed trees per acre of the proper kind 
may be left so that their seed may fill the cut-over area with a 
thicket of young seedlings. Where group cuttings are made 
the situation is more difficult. All groups of reproduction of 
the right kind found on the ground at the time the cuttings 
are made should be freed, i. e., have a circle of surrounding 
trees cut away to permit more light to reach them; occasional 
seed trees should be left, especially near large holes made hj 
the removal of some large individuals, and lastly, inferior 
species, especially those of great reproductive vigor, should be 



72 The New York State College of Forestry 

heavily cut in order to handicap them as much as possible. 
(Sometimes such trees may be only good for cordwood which 
furnishes a very small margin of profit, but will be found worth 
while to remove on account of the more valuable mixture that 
will be obtained.) As a rule, such measures will produce a 
splendid mixed forest which may need only an occasional light 
cleaning to produce the proper proportion of valuable species.* 
In certain cases it may be that the species to be favored are 
the only ones that are readily salable in the form of saw timber. 
Then the only solution will be to cut and sell the saw timber, 
and at the same time turn as many of the inferior and compet- 
ing trees into ties, poles, props and cordwood as the market will 
absorb, taking care to open up occasional fair-sized holes in the 
canopy. With the proceeds derived from the cordwood, 400 to 
500 seedlings per acre of the best species can be planted in 
groups beneath the holes in the canopy which would introduce 
the desired proportion in the woodlot. 

Specific Recommendations 

Zone B. Throughout the Hudson Valley and Lake regions, 
(map, p. 18) chestnut, until fifteen years ago, would have been 
the best species to favor. On account of the rapid spread and 
disastrous effect of the chestnut blight, however, any efforts to 
favor this species are vain and other species should be favored 
during the cuttings. Red oak as a dominant tree is the best 
hardwood substitute for chestnut, while other valuable trees like 
tulip poplar and -basswood, and particularly white ash, though 
rarely found in considerable numbers, should be encouraged in 
this region as much as possible in mixture. In practically all 
parts of this region, owing to repeated clear cuttings and fre- 
quent fires, the vitality of these sprouts has been greatly 
reduced. The introduction of softwoods which can thrive with 
less food and moisture will in time greatly improve the forest. 

As introduced species in this region red and white pine, pre- 
ferably in mixture rather than pure white pine, on account of 

* Foreign forestry practice has conclusively proven the value of mixed 
forests. They are freer from disease than pure forests, less subject to 
windthrow and produce a larger yield than pure forests. In most cases a 
woodlot of several good species in mixture is more desirable than a pure 
forest. 



Forestry for the Private Otvner 73 

the blister rust, should be encouraged. In forty years, yields 
estimated to amount to more than 25,000 board feet to the acre 
can be expected. Except in sheltered locations with plenty of 
surface moisture in the surface layers of the soil, spruce should 
not be planted in this region. Hemlock on moist sites would do 
very well in this region and would probably show a much faster 
growth than many of the hardwoods. Ordinarily it is difficult 
to underplant hardwood stands successfully if more than 40 per 
cent of the ground is covered by the tree crowns. Owing to 
shade and severe competition for food and moisture, the seed- 
lings are likely to die. 

The comparative value of hardwood forest versus the coni- 
ferous forest shows a superiority of the latter. The natural 
reproduction of hardwoods is attained easier and at consider- 
ably less expense, but only on the very best sites and situations 
will the financial returns be as good as that from a coniferous 
forest. 

Zone C. In the foothills of the Adirondacks and Catskills, 
and in the portion of the State extending from the heads of the 
Finger Lakes to the Pennsylvania line (Zone C upon the map), 
beech, birch and hard maple are the dominant trees at present, 
with pine and hemlock occurring in the mixture. The two 
latter species have been more heavily cut in the past on account 
of their greater value. None of the above hardwoods are par- 
ticularly fast growing, nor are their products in as great demand 
as the softwoods. White ash, basswood, red oak (wherever it is 
found), yellow birch and sugar maple are the trees to favor. 
If underplanting, either in mature forests or after cuttings, can 
be done, white pine, Norway spruce, and possibly European 
larch, in the larger openings could be used. 

Throughout the spruce regions of the Adirondacks and Cats- 
kills (Zone D), spruce is the tree to be favored (diagram), and 
all hardwood stands containing an understory of spruce should 
have the big spreading maples, beeches, etc., removed as soon 
as possible in order to permit the increased growth of the more 
valuable evergreens. In the larger part of this region, spruce 
is now the most important tree, and on account of the high 
development which the paper or pulp industry has reached, it 



74 The Neiv York State College of Forestry 

will probably continue to be the economic tree for some genera- 
tions.* White and red pine can also be favored, particularly on 
drier situations. 

In some portions of this region, poplar stands are found of 
greater or less area which have seeded in following a fire. These 
are temporary types, and in time, will be crowded out by other 
longer lived and more tolerant trees. ^Nevertheless, poplar can 
be made a very profitable tree crop and one that can be success- 
fully managed by a small landowner. Owing to the habit of 
sprouting from the roots, a light cutting in a stand of poplar 
results in an almost instantaenous crop of "suckers" which in a 
short time produce trees large enough to make excelsior or pulp 
bolts, etc. A few years ago, the writer visited a woodlot near 
Stony Creek, ]STew York, from which the owner was deriving a 
periodic income equal to approximately five dollars per acre per 
year. Every five years it was his custom to cut over this lot, 
removing the largest trees, the amount of growth which had 
been added in the meantime ranging from four to five cords. 
Such an intensive operation and the high cash yield was made 
possible by the proximity of his woodlot to a local excelsior plant 
which created an unusually good demand. 

Another smaller type within the limits of the spruce area 
might be mentioned, viz., the pure white pine stands found in 
Warren county along Lake George and in certain parts of the 
St. Lawrence valley. On account of the great suitability of the 
soil for this valuable species, and because of the presence of 
sufficient seed trees in most cases, natural regeneration is easy. 
Protection against fire and grazing is all that is required to 
grow pine forests in such favored districts as the country sur- 
rounding Chestertown, for example. Throughout this pine belt, 
terrific loss would be sustained were the blister rust to get 
beyond control, but at present white pine is the tree to favor. 

* On account of the market situation on paper and pulp products which 
has obtained since 1915 spruce is now extremely high. A recent quotation 
for peeled spruce bolts being $18 per cord delivered at the mill, Glens 
Falls, N. Y. While undoubtedly this price will subside somewhat when 
war conditions and prices no longer prevail, yet the startling advance made 
by pulp wood in the past few years ($10 per cord nine years ago) gives 
some idea of the prices that may be obtained for forest products in the 
near future. 



CHAPTER V 

MARKETING WOODLOT PRODUCTS 

To the discerning landowner, it is evident that proper 
marketing methods will solve most of the financial problems 
pertaining to soil management. Successful crop production is 
largely a matter of putting the right crop on the right soil and 
securing sufficient intelligent labor to bring it to maturity. The 
majority of the money (aside from a disastrous season) is made 
or lost in selling the crop. 

A similar situation obtains regarding the woodlot. Explicit 
information may be obtained regarding the best species to favor, 
how to cut and how to protect the woodlot, but if, through poor 
marketing methods, the balance sheet at the end of the opera- 
tion shows no profit, forestry will be practiced by few land- 
owners in ISTew York. If a good return can be secured from 
timber growing, plenty of men will be found ready to care for 
their woodland, for profit is the best incentive. It has long 
been the opinion of the writers that too much stress in forestry 
has been laid upon the productive end. 

Timber Estimating 

The first step in marketing the lumber standing uj3on a wood- 
lot is to find out how much there is to sell (both area and volume 
should be ascertained as accurately as possible). Trite as such 
advice may sound", it is true that countless woodlot owners have 
sold all of the timber on their woodland without having the 
faintest idea regarding the amount or value. If a farmer 
adopted the same plan with his other crops, e. g., of selling a 
bin full of potatoes or apples without inquiring the market price 
or even without measuring the number of bushels, he would be 
considered worse than foolish, yet instances of lump sales of 
standing timber are too numerous to record. 

Area 

While it is upon the unit of thousands of board feet or cords 
or markets that the price is fixed, yet a knowledge of the approx- 

[75] 



76 The New York State College of Forestry 

imate area which the woodlot occupies is decidedly helpful, since 
an estimate showing the average number of board feet per acre 
is comparatively easy to obtain. (See Sample Plots, p. 78.) 
Considering the fact that farmers deal with land continually, it 
is surprising how little some of them know regarding the area 
in their timbered lands.* 

An irregular piece of land can have its contents approxi- 
mately ascertained by means of rectangles and diagrams, 
methods which are well within the limitations of any owner. 
(See diagram.) 

An acre contains 43,560 square feet, and equals 160 square 
rods or 10 square chains. A square 208 feet on a side contains 
approximately an acre, as does a circle having a radius of 118 
feet. 

In but few cases is an actual survey with compass or transit 
and chain necessary. Practically every rural section has its own 
surveyor who can do this work if required. 

Timber Cruising 

The actual measurement of standing timber is called "cruis- 
ing," and while long experience is needed to obtain accurate 
results, even a novice may obtain a fair idea of the amount, 
species by species, by following directions. 

Practically all methods of measuring standard trees are based 
on the plan of measuring a certain part of the woodland, say 
5 to 25 per cent, and assuming that the remainder will 
average approximately the same. It should be Jcept in mind 
that the smaller the woodlot the larger must -be the percentage 
measured in order to strike a good average. In but a few cases, 
e. g., where the woodlot is very small and the individual trees 
extremely large and valuable is it necessary to measure all the 
trees. 



* The writer on one occasion was estimating the timber on a woodlot 
and asked the owner how many acres it contained. He commenced with 
the total area of the farm taken from a deed 75 years old and by deducting 
field after field announced that there should be 15 acres in the woodlot. 
Careful chaining proved that it contained 29.9 acres. In view of the 
superior quality of the timber in the woodlot such an error would have 
meant a loss of hundreds of dollars on a per acre valuation. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 



77 




o 



78 The Neiv York State College of Forestry 

Two methods of timber estimating are used by foresters. 
They may be called : 

I. The sample plot method. 
II. The strip survey. 

I. In the sample plot method the area of the woodlot must he 
Tcnoivn quite accurately 

The steps would be as follows: 

1. Lay off a number of sample plots in average timber, 
the number depending on the size of the woodlot, either 
square (208 feet on a side) or round (radius 118 feet). 

2. Measure the diameter of all the trees upon the plot, 
breast high, i. e., 4^ feet from the ground. In regular 
forestry work, this is done by means of an instrument called 
a tree caliper, but for a single woodlot, this dimension may 
be obtained by finding the girth of the tree 4^ feet above 
the ground and dividing by 3 1/7. 

An idea of the average height may be obtained by ocular 
estimate, or a ten-foot pole may be leaned against the tree, 
and the number of poles' length the tree will contain will 
give a rough idea of the height. (For evergreens the total 
height should be estimated, while for hardwoods only the 
part which will make saw logs is usually computed.) 

3. The measurements are entered into a record or tally 
where similar measurements may be grouped together for 
further computation. 

4. From a volume table, one for each species of tree, 
showing the contents in board feet or cubic feet of average 
trees of a given dimension and height, the contents of each 
tree standing upon the sample plot may be obtained. (See 
Appendix, Volume Tables and Their Use.) Their sum 

' will give the stand per acre, and the average of all the sam- 
ple plots, multiplied by the number of acres in the entire 
woodlot, would give the contents of all the standing timber. 
(In a fifty-acre woodlot it would be wise to take ten to 
twenty sample plots and their average would be multiplied 
by 50 to get the entire stand.) 



Forestry for the Private Owner 79 

In case only a rough estimate is needed, the contents of a 
sample acre may he obtained as follows : 

1. Lay off a circle with a radius of 118 feet — 1 acre. 

2. Count all the trees within this circle. 

3. Select a tree having average diameter either by guess, or measure 

all the trees and compute average diameter. Sample tree 
should be normal in form. 

4. Estimate number of 16-foot logs the tree will yield, expressing 

odd lengths in fractions of 16-foot logs, e. g., a tree yielding 
36 feet of used length would be considered a 2% log tree. 

5. Estimate top and bottom diameters inside the bark of this used 

portion, add and divide by two to find mean diameter. 

6. Compute contents of sample tree by this rule of thumb: 

(Mean diameter — 60) X8/10 = contents in board feet of aver- 
age 16 -foot log. 

This figure multiplied by 2% (if stick 36 feet could be cut) 
will give contents of average tree. 

To illustrate, a tree 60 feet tall contains a 36-foot stick of saw 
timber which is 24 inches at stump and 16 inches at top inside the 
bark. Mean diameter equals 20 inches. 

Then (400—60) X 8/10 = 282 board feet contents of average 
16-foot log. 

282 X 2% gives 634 board feet as the contents of the tree. 

7. Multiply contents of average tree by number of trees standing 

on the acre plot to find stand per acre. 

Where the woodlot is small, up to five acres, it is desirable to 
estimate every tree separately. . It is to be remembered that a 
timber estimate is comparable to the process of stock taking or 
inventory in any business, and that thought and care in propor- 
tion to the value to be expected is justified from a business 
standpoint. 

A notebook or sheet of paper is prepared somewhat similar to 
the following diagram or schedule. (See page 80.) 

The estimator sizes up the first tree and guesses how many 
logs can be sawed out of its main stem. Suppose this tree to 
be a sugar maple with about thirty-three feet of clear length 
and above that heavy branching. Allowing for the stump, there 
is about thirty feet of merchantable length or one sixteen-foot 
log and one fourteen-foot log. By looking at the tree carefully, 
the estimator decides that the diameter inside of the bark at the 
top of the first or butt log is sixteen inches, and at the top of the 
second log is thirteen inches. These figures are entered into 
the proper columns, as shown in the diagram, and the estimator 
proceeds to the next tree, where the same process is repeated. 



80 The New York State College of Forestry 



ja tooowo 

O rHrti-lrHlM 

a 



"3.2 ^ fl 
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»aj 341 * 



Forestry for the Private Owner 81 

After the estimator has gone all through the woodlot, he can sit 
down with a standard log rule, Doyle or Scribner, and look up 
the corresponding board foot values for the logs of his tallied 
dimensions. The getting of the total board foot contents of each 
tree and then of his woodlot is but a matter of simple addition. 
In figuring up totals it is highly desirable to collect all of the 
same species together, hard maple, birch, hemlock, etc., for pur- 
poses of finding out just how much of each is available. Adver- 
tisement for sale of woodlot products on the stump is always 
more acceptable when a probable purchaser can read the dif- 
ferent amounts of each kind of timber that are available. 

After each tree is estimated, it should be marked in some way 
so that there is no danger of it being measured again. A piece 
of chalk or string may be used or a small blaze made with a 
hatchet. 

By the methods already described, the total stand of timber 
is obtained, but it is rare that the whole stand will be felled. 
To obtain a correct estimate of the amount of timber to be cut 
and sold, each mature or undesirable tree to be removed should 
be blazed, and when the estimate is made, two tallies as "cut" 
and "leave" can be kept. On one the trees to be felled and sold 
are recorded ; on the other the seed and future crop tree, are set 
down. Computing these figures by a volume table will give the 
amount of stumpage for sale and the amount left standing after 
logging. Or, if the woodlot is large and valuable enough to 
furnish sufficient stumpage for a mill "set up" without a care- 
ful estimate, it may be possible to blaze each tree to be cut and 
later scale the logs from these trees at the mill rollway. How- 
ever, a knowledge of how much standing timber a woodlot con- 
tains is always worth knowing, even in fixing the value of a 
farm. 

In such a tally as this a separate sheet should be made for 
each species in order to avoid confusion, especially in the record 
regarding the species which it is desirable to favor. The sim- 
plest method of recording measures is by the "dot and dash" 
system. Each dot and each dash represents a separate tally of a 
tree. 



82' The New York State College of Forestry 



DOT-AND-DA^H ^"Y^TEM OF RECORDING 


TREES. 


1 234-567 8 9 


10 


« • o o 5> t> o e- <a o O J » *- — 1 


I s 


Each dot and each dawh rebre*/*ent-'" one 





Plate 12. Dot and dash system of tallying. 

The tally sheet should be drawn. up according to the form of 
Plate 13, and, as already said, it is better that a separate sheet 
be kept for each species. 

. Following such a tally as this it is a very simple matter to 
compute within each species the value of the "cut" and "leave" 
trees for .each diameter class. 

II. Strip survey method 

The strip survey method of estimating a woodlot is the 
method most commonly used by foresters. It consists in meas- 
uring the diameter of all trees on a strip ordinarily four rods 
(sixty-six feet) wide. This strip is usually run from one side 
of the woodlot to the other, up and down hill, rather than along 
the slopes, in order to get a sample of both good and bad timber. 
When the opposite boundary is reached an offset of five or ten 
chains is taken and another strip run back parallel to the first. 

'Such a method has certain advantages. While an inexperi- 
enced) man may locate his sample plots in timber that is much 
better or worse than the true average, strips run across the wood- 
lot at fixed distances apart will generally compensate, and a bet- 
ter average may thus be obtained. Another advantage is, that 
by keeping track of the distance and direction (a compass being 
used in regular forest management) the need of a boundary 
survey is obviated as a good map may be drawn. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 



83 



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84 The Neiv York State College of Forestry 

(In small woodlots it might be well to find the area in 
acres first, and then obtain the average stand per acre by 
measuring all the trees on a strip which will total 20 
to 50 per cent of the area. The strip being one chain 
wide, ten chains advance means one acre actually meas- 
ured. ) 

The tally may be kept in the "cut" and "leave" form already 
illustrated. This form has the great advantage of showing the 
amounts of timber that will be left on the ground to form the 
nucleus of another crop of timber some five, ten or fifteen years 
later. 

The form in which the tally sheet is ruled should be harmon- 
ized with the form of the volume table to be used. If the volume 
table shows a tabular statement of tree volumes by diameters 
and total heights, for example, the tally sheet should be pre- 
pared so that the trees will be tallied in the same units. If by 
diameters and log lengths, the tally sheet should follow that 
form. Accompanying is illustrated a sample of the tally sheet 
which follows the first-mentioned form. 

The contents of the individual trees are computed by using 
the figures obtained from a volume table for that species and 
the contents of the average sample acre found by adding the 
contents of all trees, and dividing by the number of acres meas- 
ured — then the contents of the whole woodlot are obtained by 
multiplying the number of board feet of each species upon the 
sample acre by the number of acres in the piece. 

To illustrate: To cruise the woodlot outlined in Plate 11 the 
steps would be as follows : 

1. Find the acreage of piece by chaining boundaries 
and computing contents. 

2. Starting at some point a little distance in from one 
of the corners, start a line across the woodlot (using a com- 
pass if one is available; if not, keeping the line straight 
by sighting on a row of trees ahead), taking care that the 
lines run up or down the hill and not along the slope. 
(Stands are heaviest on benches and in the valley, while the 
size of the timber decreases as the top of a high slope is 



Forestry for the Private Owner 



85 



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86 The New York State College of Forestry 

approached. Only by measuring both the good and poor 
portions can a fair average be obtained.) 

3. Make out a tally sheet (following form in Plate 14). 
D. B. H. means diameter breast high, 4^ feet from the 
ground. ) 



/ 


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/s>e ch \ 




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Plate 15. Details of methods of run- 
ning strips on ninety -acre woodlot 
in Plate 11. 

4. The diameters of all trees over six inches in diameter 
standing upon a strip sixty-six feet wide are obtained. The 
total and used heights (amount that will make saw logs or 
pulpwood) of six to eight trees of each species is obtained. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 87 

5. The contents of the trees of each species arc obtained 
by using the volume tables in appendix. 

6. Divide the number of board feet of each species by 
8.25 (82.5 chains were run, and since ten chains of linear 
distance mean one acre actually measured, 8.25 acres were 
actually estimated). This result will be the number of 
board feet of each species which an average acre, would 
contain. r j 

7. Multiply these results by 90.8, the total acreage, to 
obtain the total stand. 

In the woodlot in question it was found that the following 
amounts standing on the acre measured: 



Pine 


Hemlock 


Maple 


Beeeb 


Basswood 


Miscel- 
laneous- 
Elm, cnerry 


1,208 bd. ft. 


2,542 bd. ft. 


6,958 bd. ft. 


3,274 bd. ft. 


1,142 bd. ft. 


1,477 bd. ft. 



Dividing each of these amounts by 8.25 would give the fol- 
lowing results: 

Amount in Board Feet Upon an Average Acre 



Pine 


Hemlock 


Maple 


Beecb 


Basswood 


Miscel- 
laneous , 


143.4 


300.1 


826.3 


388.8 


135.6 


175.4 



Multiplying each result by 90.8, the number of acres in the 
woodlot, the total would be as follows: 

Contents in Board Feet op John Thompson, Woodlot . , 



Pine 


Hemlock 


Maple 


. Beecb 


Basswood 


Miscel- 
laneous 


13,020. 


27,249 


75,028 


35,303 


12,313 , 


15,926 



Total, 17S,839 board feet. 

With figures like the above available the owner of the stump- 
age is in an excellent position to bargain with any possible 
purchaser. 



88 The New York State College of Forestry 
Timber Sales 



When the amount of standing timber has been ascertained, 
an excellent beginning has been made, hut the deal has by no 
means been put through. The value of the stumpage must be 
ascertained and then a purchaser found, either for the standing 
timber or for the manufactured material. Moreover, he must 
be induced to pay a fair price, one that will show a reasonable 
profit to the grower, for, contrary to the accepted belief, it does 
cost something to grow timber when the interest on the land, 
taxes, etc., are all figured in. 

Standing Timber 

A very common way in the past has been to sell the land and 
timber together, or the timber upon the stump, either to a mill 
owner who manufactured the lumber himself, or the land and 
stumpage were sold to a middleman — timber buyer — who in 
turn disposed of the lot to a mill operator at a considerable 
advance in price. In either case the land and timber or simply 
the stumpage was bought for as little as possible, the ignorance 
of the owner concerning the amount and value of his trees and 
the value of the manufactured product causing him very often 
to accept a ridiculously low price. By educating the small for- 
est and woodlot owner regarding values and markets and thus 
enabling him to reap a large measure of the profit himself, the 
State College of Forestry feels that it is not only fulfilling its 
obligations to the citizens of New York, but is rendering the 
land problem much easier of solution by making tree culture 
upon the non-agricultural areas popular and profitable. 

In the past, the difficulty in the way of the small timber 
owner who desired to market his products direct to the 
consumer lay, not only in his ignorance of markets and 
values, but also in the limited amount of each species he 
had for sale. A man possessing one-half million feet ready 
for the axe could doubtless find a purchaser for all his 
material. To the owner of twenty acres of woodland, 
where some of the more valuable species may yield con- 
siderably less than carload lots, the problem of finding a 
profitable market is one rather difficult to solve. The best 






Forestry for the Private Owner 89 

answer seems to be in local sales or some form of coopera- 
tive marketing.* (See p. 99.) In certain cases owners 
of adjoining or nearby woodlots can plan to log and saw at 
the same time. The larger cut thus obtained will permit 
the securing of a selling agent or at least enable a better 
bargain to be driven. 

While the actual felling and skidding operations and the 
hauling of the sawn lumber are parts of the manufacture of 
lumber which the landowner should do with his own teams and 
labor, if possible, there are many cases where it cannot be done. 
In a busy dairy farm, for example, there may be little if any 
spare time in the winter, and besides the equipment may be 
lacking. In such cases true farm economy may demand the 
selling of the standing trees at a fair price rather than the pur- 
chasing of equipment and carrying on the work with unskilled, 
hired labor. In such a case the aims should be: 

1. To get a fair price for the timber. 

2. To see that the purchaser removes the mature, defective and un- 

desirable trees without injuring the young growth and that the 
woodlot is left comparatively free from slash and with fire 
risk at a minimum. 

Regarding prices, the value of any standing timber depends 
upon; 

1. Species — whether in demand or not. 

2. Condition — size and soundness. 

3. Situation — distance from mill or railroad. Even the most desir- 

able timber will bring but a small price if the logging and 
hauling charges eat up the bulk of the sale price. 

All of the above must be taken into consideration in fixing a 
price per thousand on the stump. 

In regions where there is a great deal of woodlot logging the 
average price received for standing timber can usually be 
obtained by inquiry among neighbors. Usually there is an 
accepted rate — maximum and minimum— for the various 
species, depending upon the hauling distance. In such a case it 

* At the present, on account of the extreme demand for lumber of all 
sorts, it is possible in certain parts of the State to sell such species as ash, 
maple, etc., cut into logs and loaded on cars. This is extremely simple 
marketing for species needed, but whether it will continue after the present 
demand subsides remains to be seen. 



90 The New York State College of Forestry 

is merely a question of setting a fair price and holding out until 
that price is obtained. 

The writer once estimated a woodlot owned by a city man 
■ for which the sum of $300 had been offered for all of the 
timber it contained. A day and a half spent in marking 
the over-mature chestnut, oak and hemlock disclosed that 
there was about 100,000 board feet of timber contained in 
trees which had practically ceased growing and should be 
removed for the good of the stand. On account of the large 
size of the timber and the proximity to market, a price of 
$10 per thousand was set. When the owner reported this 
sum to the would-be purchaser, he stated in emphatic terms 
that "he always knew foresters were a crazy lot, but as a 
special concession he would give $450 for the marked 
trees," about one-third of the stand. The offer was refused. 
In a few weeks he raised it to $600, then to $800, and 
finally paid $1,000 cash for one-third the timber,, all of 
which he had nearly bought for $300. It pays to know 
how much the timber is worth. 

In some parts of the State reliable estimators are to be found 
who make a business of cruising woodlots at a certain rate per 
day. If such men are available, care should be taken to select 
a man who is truly expert and one who has no business relations 
with the possible purchaser.* 

The safest and most satisfactory way, however, is for each 
owner to compute the value of his products, check this figure 
against all reliable data and then hold until the minimum price 
is received. Such computations are extremely helpful whether 
or not the services of an expert are enlisted, as errors may be 
detected by the second computation. 

* The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse is willing and 
ready to give general advice free of charge concerning the methods of cut- 
ting, protecting the woodlot, etc., but it does not feel justified in sending 
out members of the staff for the sole purpose of valuing timber land. Ordi- 
narily, however, the College can direct interested owners to reliable and 
experienced men who can advise them regarding the amount and value of 
their forest products. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 91 

Stumpage prices 

The steps in figuring the stumpage values of the various 

species might be outlined as follows: 

From the selling price of the manufactured product deduct : 

The cost of felling and skidding the logs. 
The cost of sawing. ...... 

The cost of stacking. 

The cost of hauling lumber. 

Freight charges. 

And in addition, 20 to 25 per cent of the manufacturing and selling 
cost for the logger's profit. The remainder should be the price 
which the timber should command standing on the stump.* 

A stumpage price for a pine stand seventy years old would be 
computed in this fashion : 

1. The average price paid for mill run pine delivered at the plants 

of several nearby consumers could be obtained either by cor- 
respondence with, the possible purchasers • or from the New 
York State College of Forestry at Syracuse. This is at present 
about $50 per M. Bulletin No. 1, Wood-using Industries of 
New York, published by the College, gives the average prices 
delivered for the year 1910. A letter to the Utilization Depart- 
ment of the College will bring the current prices. 

2. Freight charges could be computed by ascertaining the rate per 

hundred pounds to the nearest mill, say 12% cents per hun- 
dred, and multiplying by 2800, the air dry weight of 1000 
board feet of pine obtained from table on p. 131. The freight 
charges in this case would be $3.50 per M. 

3. The average manufacturing costs might be obtained by inquiry 

in the locality in question. If information is lacking, the aver- 
age cost (say $15 per M) might be used. 

4. For profit and selling expense, the fourth of a moderate, and 

one-fifth of a high, manufacturing cost should be added to the 
charges. In this case $15.00 = $3.00* 
5, 

5. Cost of hauling logs, say three miles, from woods to sawmill, 

$6.00 per M. 

6. Cost of skidding, $2.50 per M. 

7. Cost of felling and bucking, $3.50 per M. > 



* The allowance for a profit is perfectly legitimate since supervision and 
selling costs must come out of this item. The above amount is none too 
large since in addition extraordinary expenses and losses of various kinds 
must be paid from this sum. Many mill operators will not touch a wood- 
lot unless the purchase price will show them a minimum profit of $2.50 
per M. 



92 The New York State College of Forestry 

8. The selling price of the timber at the mill minus the sum of the 
various charges equals the stumpage price which the owner 
should receive, e. g. : 

Price received f . o. b. mill for white pine $50 00 

Mill costs, freight charges, etc... $21 50 

Logging costs 12 00 

$33 50 

Stumpage price 16 50 



$50 00 $50 00 



In December, 1919, the following statement was obtained as 
the approximate prices of sawn lumber f. o. b. mill run, prevail- 
ing throughout the latter part of that year : 





Per M. 




Per M. 


Hemlock 


$55 00 
75 00 
75 00 
70 00 
40 00 
40 00 


Ash 

Cherry 


$65 00 


Oak 


70 00 


Maple 


75 00 


Elm 


40 00 
50 00 
40 00 









A stumpage value computed in this way may still be too low, 
as the unusual quality of the standing timber — its large size 
and freedom from knots — may command a price considerably 
above the average. However, a woodlot owner with such a price 
per thousand in mind would be in an infinitely better position 
than a man who merely accepts a lump sum for all the timber 
the operator wishes to cut from his woodlot without having the 
faintest idea of whether there are 100,000 or 400,000 board 
feet of standing timber and whether the operator is going to 
obtain a profit of three dollars or eight dollars per thousand for 
his trees. Such a price might be considered the rock bottom 
figure and the asking price might be set considerably higher. 

Contract 

Having fixed upon a minimum price, a bargain may be 
struck. However, if the would-be purchaser refuses to pay the 
price, it would be wise to hold out, since the condition of even 
mature timber does not greatly deteriorate in two to three years, 
and by that time the prices doubtless would have advanced still 
further. One advantage of the forest crop is that it can be sold 
when the price is right, and "holding over" two or three years 



Forestry for the Private Owner 93 

will not cause appreciable deterioration or depreciation as in the 
case of most farm crops.* 

When the sale has been made, a contract, or at least a written 
agreement, should be drawn up. In this instance, the services 
of a lawyer are likely to be helpful, as the loss of a few thousand 
board feet will amount to more than the fees for drawing up 
such a simple document. Such a contract or agreement should 
include the following points: 

1. JSTone but marked trees shall be cut. Double stump- 
age shall be charged for unmarked trees which the chopper 
removes. It is quite a common trick for choppers to 
"lodge" a marked tree in an unmarked tree of good size in 
order to fell the big one. Foresters always blaze a. tree to 
be removed about four feet from the ground and again 
upon the stump, preferably using an initialled marking 
axe or hatchet. After the operation is finished it is quite 
simple to check up the unmarked trees removed. 

2. All timber felled shall be paid for at a given price 
per thousand, whether removed or used, the owner to do 
the scaling. This will mean greater care in felling to pre- 
vent breakage. 

3. The log rule to be used in measuring the logs should 
be specified (see Appendix). 

4. Reasonable care shall be used in felling and skidding 
trees that no unnecessary damage be done to the reproduc- 
tion. If there are large groups of fine young saplings 
which carelessness might irretrievably injure, a penalty of 
so much per tree damaged should be included if possible. 

5. Low stumps and closely used tops should be 
demanded. This clause not only provides for larger rev- 
enue, but also leaves the lot in much better condition. 

6. The question of brush disposal should be provided 
for. In case the full price demanded for the stumpage can- 



* In regions where there is little woodlot logging and little competition 
among buyers, it is not wise to hold out for too stiff a price. If the opera- 
tor cannot get stumpage for his mill he may move some distance away, 
in which case there might be no opportunity for a sale for some time to 
come. A fair price and a fair profit should be the aim. 



94' The New York State College of Forestry 

not be obtained, the operator may agree to pile and burn 
the brash, which operation is worth from twenty cents to 
fifty cents per thousand. This will save the owner that 
much labor and expense later on. 

11. Payment of stumpage price should be stipulated 
either in advance or in installments as fast as the timber 
is cut and before it is removed from the property. In case 
of a financial failure or breach of contract, the material is 
still in the owner's possession. 

8. The purchaser should agree to use all care regarding 
forest fire, and to extinguish at his own expense all fires 
which may occur during the operation. 

9. In case of dispute each party may select a referee, 
who will choose a third, and the majority decision of these 
three men shall be binding. 

Other clauses may be included to cover special cases, but a 
contract or agreement drawn up to cover the above points will 
usually prove satisfactory, and the owner will find his wood- 
land left in good growing and reproducing condition when the 
operation is finished. 

Selling the Logs 

Where equipment and labor for logging are available, but the 
forest owner has neither the inclination nor the time to super- 
vise the sawing and marketing, he may agree to deliver logs 
from the stump to the mill, receiving a contract price for them ; 
the price should vary according to the species and the quality 
of the timber. While in certain parts of the country logs are 
graded, the experience necessary to grade accurately several 
thousand logs is rather beyond the average owner. If the tim- 
ber to be sold is of extra size and quality, it would be much 
easier and simpler to add five dollars to eight dollars per thou- 
sand to the stumpage price obtained by deducting logging costs, 
etc., from selling price. (Page 92.) In case of extremely 
large and fine timber, to secure an experienced estimator might 
be money well expended. (The oldest and largest trees are 
sometimes the most defective, however, so that size alone may 
not be a safe criterion.) 




Figure 12. Logs Piled in Rollway Ready for Mill Set Up. Bj' cutting, 
skidding and hauling logs himself, the landowner can utilize idle time 
for help and teams, and insure minimum damage to young growth in 
felling-. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 95 

By fixing a fair price per thousand for his forest products, 
the average owner will be assured of a good return, provided he 
knows how much he has to sell. This information may be ob- 
tained either from a "cut and leave" estimate of the standing 
timber or by measuring the contents of the trees after they are 
felled and cut into log lengths. This process of measuring logs 
is called "scaling" and may be performed either in the woods as 
fast as the trees are felled and cut into log lengths or a scaler 
may be stationed at the mill rollway. In either case, each log 
should be marked for identification so that it will not be meas- 
ured again. 

Scaling 

The contents of logs in board feet are obtained by the use of 
a scale rule, a flat hickory stick usually tipped with metal upon 
which numbers are stamped or burned.* 

The stick is applied to the small end of the log and the diam- 
eter is measured to the nearest inch (i. e., a log 9.4 inches is 
scaled as a nine-inch log; one 9.6 as a ten-inch log) inside the 
hark. The contents of the log are then read from the stick, 
which shows, for instance, how many board feet are contained 
in a log nine inches at the small end and twelve feet long. 
(The ordinary scale rule reads from six or eight inches to thirty- 
six inches in diameter, and even log lengths from eight to twenty 
feet.) 

Such measurement sounds extremely simple, and so it would 
be if each log were perfect in form and free from defects. In 
practice, however, wide experience is needed to be a good scaler, 
since proper allowance must be made for interior defects, judg- 
ing only from exterior signs. Unless the timber is unusually 
defective, the ordinary over-run will make up for average 
defects. Logs usually saw out from 10 to 25 per cent more 
lumber than the log scale gave them. This difference is known 
as the over-run. In some cases, a lump deduction from the total 
scale is made for hidden defects, so that by scaling each log as 



* In case it is not possible to obtain a scale stick, an ordinary yardstick 
may be used and the dimensions of each log recorded in a book. On reach- 
ing home the contents according to the proper log rule may be worked out 
by the use of the tables in the Appendix. 



96 The Neiv York State College of Forestry 

sound and then throwing off from 5 to 20 per cent of the volume 
in board feet, depending upon the age and condition of the 
timber, a fair allowance may be made. 

Which scale or log rule to use in measuring timber is a point 
which should be clearly agreed upon, preferably in the contract. 
There are approximately two score log rules in the United 
States, and some show from 15 to 25 per cent more or less than 
others. In the Adirondacks, the Adirondack market or Stand- 
ard is customarily used — a log nineteen inches in diameter and 
thirteen feet long being taken as the unit or standard. This is 
considered to contain about 200 board feet, and the ratios of 
three markets to the cord and five markets to the thousand are 
commonly accepted.* 

For Central ISTew York, the Scribner rule is quite widely 
accepted, and yields comparatively good results. While quite 
liberal on small logs, its value for sticks over twenty-eight inches 
in diameter is rather conservative, yet with the sawing practice 
of the average portable mill, its figures give a close idea of the 
sawn lumber obtained. Two log rules called the International 
and Champlain are conceded to be more nearly correct mathe- 
matically, yet the board foot contents they give would be rather 
difficult for a portable mill to secure. All in all the Scribner 
rule will give fair and just results. 

Selling Sawn Lumber 

In certain cases owners of good-sized woodlots may wish to 
carry a lumbering project through from stump to market. In 
such instances actual selling of the manufactured lumber is the 
part likely to cause the greatest difficulty to the average man 
since the manufacturers and lumber dealer generally buy from 
mill operators or jobbers who have been in the game for years 
and who are thoroughly acquainted with markets, freight rates, 
prices, discounts, etc. 

(The Utilization Department of the New York State 
College of Forestry at Syracuse, publishes each month a 

* These ratios only hold true for logs running from 18 to 24 inches in 
diameter. Five standards of smaller logs will not saw out a thousand 
board feet, i. e., it takes 13.7 standards of eight-inch logs to yield 1,000 
board feet of sawn lumber. 




Figure 13. Scaling Logs Cut From a Farm Woodlot. The practice of 
measuring or scaling logs can be most easily and accurately done as the 
logs are being skidded into the piles called rollways. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 97 

Utilization Bulletin in which are listed amounts and sizes 
of various species which the owners throughout the State 
desire to buy or sell. This bulletin is distributed to a wide 
clientele of consumers and manufacturers of lumber, and 
frequent sales are made in this way. Any citizen of the 
State may avail himself of this selling service by writing 
the Utilization Department, New York State College of 
Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y.) 

Uses of Different Species 

The first question which confronts an owner is what are my 
products to be used for ? Will they furnish material for build- 
ing purposes or can they be most profitably marketed as pulp 
stock, etc. ? In the Appendix will be found a list of the prin- 
cipal uses to which the more common woods of New York 
are put. 

Having learned the forms in which the various species to be 
cut reach the market, the next step is to get in touch with the 
nearest pfoducer of these articles. A list of manufacturers of 
wood products may then be consulted and those nearest home 
written to first, since the nearer the market the less will be the 
freight rate. A brief business-like letter should be written 
stating that there is for sale so many thousand board feet of 
hemlock, so much maple, etc., etc., giving the maximum and 
minimum log diameters and a general idea of the quality of 
the logs, how much will run clear, etc. The price could either 
be set or an offer asked. In any case, the seller should have 
clearly in mind the minimum price he will accept. 

Such an inquiry should be started before even the felling is 
commenced and certainly before the logs are sawed, since very 
often, better prices may be obtained by sawing the logs in the 
sizes desired. (This is especially true if grading is done at the 
mill.) Upon the receipt of an offer, the credit and standing of 
the would-be purchaser should be investigated if a large sale 
on credit is contemplated. 



98 The New York State College of Forestry 

Another point worth remembering is to keep a second possible 
purchaser in view in case the first withdraws his bid while the 
lumber is in transit.* 

Summary 

To summarize the steps necessary to dispose profitably of 
woodlot products by the private owner, the steps would be as 
follows : 

1. Inspect the woodlot and mark the mature and undesirable trees 

for removal. 

2. Ascertain the approximate amount of each species to be har- 

vested by means of a "cut and leave" estimate. Arrangements 
for sawing, piling or any of the other parts of the logging job 
which are to be done on contract should be concluded at this 
time, and the cost and specifications should be set down in 
writing. 

3. From list of "Uses" the articles and products made from each 

species may be learned. 

4. By writing to four or five of the nearest and largest manufac- 

turers found in a list of manufacturers and consumersf, a 
sale may be made to the consumer direct and the full "deliv- 
ered price" obtained rather than selling first to a jobber. 

In writing to these manufacturers, a brief business-like 
letter should be the rule, typewritten, if possible. The 
amount of each species should be stated, the size of the 
logs, and the quality, stating that the material will be 
"sawed to hill." 

Upon the receipt of an offer or the acceptance of the 
quoted price, terms should be arranged and the sawing 
may be then safely started, with the assurance that all the 
material will be sold, and the maximum profit assured the 
owner of the timber. 



* A prominent portable mill operator, after several disastrous experi- 
ences with small manufacturers, makes it a point to arrive at the point of 
delivery when the car is opened. On several occasions, unscrupulous pur- 
chasers wired him that "after partially unloading the car it was found that 
the grades were not up to standard and they were holding the shipment 
awaiting his instructions." In such cases he had induced them to accept 
the shipment by reducing the price several dollars per thousand, which 
was exactly what they had planned. After several such experiences the 
mill operator if possible kept two purchasers on the string for each ship- 
ment and was present when the car was opened. In case this trick was 
tried he would order the car resealed and ship it to the other customer 
rather than suffer the loss. 

t See Wood Utilization Directory of New York State, Technical Publica- 
tion No. 6, Vol. xvii, No. 5, New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse, 
N. Y, 1917. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 99 

Community Marketing 

The above plan for disposing of woodlot products may be 
more difficult than it appears, or at least it will take more time 
than the brief description suggests. Men not of a business turn 
of mind or owners of small lots upon which only limited 
amounts of timber stand may find certain obstacles in the way 
of direct or individual marketing to the consumer. The diffi- 
culty of marketing small amounts of valuable species has been 
previously referred to, and a man having 6,000 board feet of 
black cherry and 8,000 feet of white ash may have a rather hard 
time in finding a purchaser at a good figure. To such owners, 
the idea of group or community or cooperative marketing, in one 
of its various phases, would be most welcome. This idea of 
pooling the interests of several or several score producers of 
farm and garden crops is not a new one. It has long been dis- 
cussed, and at present countless instances of creameries and fruit 
organizations, purchasing associations, etc., managed upon a 
cooperative basis with striking success can be cited. The recent 
victory of the ]STew York farmers in obtaining a living price 
for their milk proves what can be done if the producers will 
only assist each other. Timber, being a soil product, could and 
should be marketed through the same machinery, and being a 
non-perishable crop, has decided advantages when once the 
markets and values are known. 

What forms of community cooperation will help the small 
woodlot owner in marketing his forest products direct to the 
consumer with a maximum of profit ? Several schemes may be 
outlined, one of which might fit the conditions in a given com- 
munity. They represent possible solutions to the marketing 
question which for some years has engaged the attention of 
foresters.* 

For large forest owners, or men able and ready to market 
their own products the process has been previously described. 
For owners of small tracts and men who have neither the time 
nor the ability to earch out markets for their woodlot products, 
the following methods of selling direct to the consumer with 
maximum profit might be suggested: 

* Cooperative Marketing of Woodlot Products. Proceedings of Society 
of American Foresters, 1914, Vol. 9, p. 303. 



100 The New York State College of Forestry 

1. Selling by paid agent. If several men would cut over 
their woodland at the same time by pooling their output, they 
would have enough material for sale to warrant the hiring of a 
man who would sell their products on commission. 

In such a case, the College would be entirely willing to 
advise the owners, regarding the prevailing prices, would 
carry a list of the timber for sale upon its regular monthly 
list and would advise regarding the best methods of adver- 
tising the material, etc. 

The selling agent in this case should be a man who is 
acquainted with the lumber business (if such can be found who 
will work on commission), and his selling commission on the 
yield of several woodlots would make it worth his while to 
undertake the sale and 3 to 5 per cent commission, depending 
upon the demand for the species, would be fair. 

One plan that has been suggested is to have the County 
Agent act as the business manager for the farmers he serves, 
and devote more of his time to the selling end, both of field 
and forest products. In fact, it is quite possible to foresee 
that the farm bureau could be developed into a rural cham- 
ber of commerce, promoting the business end of farm 
management. 

The Farm Bureau agents in this State are, as a rule, 
thoroughly trained in science, and the general principles of 
forest management can be easily grasped by such a body 
of men. The ISTew York State College of Forestry at 
Syracuse has offered in the past, and now offers full 
cooperation, in assisting all Farm Bureaus to grow and 
market the products from the farm woodlots of the State, 
in order that the rural population may derive the maximum 
financial returns. 

2. Selling through cooperative associations. In many parts 
of the State, cooperative associations are rapidly coming into 
existence. These associations represent various degrees of effi- 
ciency and cooperation. In some instances they exist solely for 
purchase, supplying members with seed, fertilizer, feed, "etc., at 
reduced rates, obtaining a discount through wholesale purchases. 



Forestry for the Private Oivner 101 

Other associations sell as well as buy for their members, and to 
an organization like this, it is but a step from selling potatoes 
and fruit in the fall to selling cordwood, railroad ties and 
lumber in the winter months. The selling of woodlot products, 
it is true, requires a little different knowledge, but a man with 
the requisite business experience to market successfully a car- 
load of apples could soon pick up the methods of marketing five 
carloads of basswood and twenty carloads of maple, etc. The 
College of Forestry gladly offers its assistance to managers of 
such cooperative associations in finding desirable markets. 

The Grange in some parts of the State is the strong cen- 
tral organization and the best medium for undertaking 
such a cooperative marketing project. The idea of com- 
munity woodyards has been put forward where men could 
deliver a few thousand board feet of lumber in the log ; to 
have the logs sawed, the lumber graded and sold to his 
credit. This same idea works excellently with fruit and 
potatoes, and since the entire energy of the land owner is 
devoted to growing, and the marketing is done by experts, 
the best results in gross yield and financial profits may be 
obtained. 

The College of Forestry for the past eight years has 
been actively cooperating with the State Grange in its 
educational campaign, and believes that this organization, 
so rapidly increasing in influence, can materially aid the 
forestry cause within the State by assisting in the market- 
ing of woodlot products. A profitable woodlot means a 
deeper interest in good forestry practice. 

The above mentioned schemes may seem rather too advanced 
for certain communities, yet it is simply extending to the wood- 
lot owner the cooperative marketing idea launched with such 
success by the fruit growers of the West, and now being adopted 
by fruit and truck growers in this State. Both plans simply 
mean broadening the scope of organizations now in existence; 
the further perfecting of machinery now in actual operation. 

3. Selling stumpage to registered operators. Yet another 
plan may seem more feasible in the immediate future. No man 
begrudges paying a fair wage nor fair compensation for services 



102 The New York State College of Forestry 



actually rendered. The chief objection against the present inef- 
ficient scheme of marketing foodstuffs and woodlot products is 
that there are too many profits paid to men who do little or 
nothing. A legitimate charge for the manufacture and sale of 
a stand of chestnut poles, for example, would not be begrudged 
provided the land owner felt confident that the man doing the 
cutting and selling was both capable and honest. 

At the present time, there are several graduates of the College 
of Forestry, or trained foresters of other schools, who are operat- 
ing portable saw mills within the State. With the understand- 
ing that these men must, in every instance, cut the woodlots 
with the idea of a future crop in mind (or explicitly tell the 
owner that the method he has in view is straight lumbering 
rather than forestry) ; must properly dispose of the brush, and 
most important of all, must pay the owner a fair price per 
thousand for his standing timber, the College will recommend 
to woodlot and small forest owners the members of such a select 
class of operators. This in reality is not direct, personal 
marketing, yet is a plan providing for more profitable yields 
from the woodlot, and at the same time should in a few decades 
mean far better forest crops upon the non-agricultural portions 
of New York farms. 

Whichever of the above schemes is used, or if an entirely 
original marketing plan is used, the really important thing is 
to cut and market the timber from the farm woodlot with a 
definite object in view. This should be to produce tree crops 
of increasing technical value as time passes, and at the same 
time, to have the financial yield from the non-agricultural por- 
tions of the farms of New York steadily appreciated. !NTo state 
or nation can permanently prosper that does not care for its 
soil and both forestry and agriculture separate, yet interdepen- 
dent, must be practised to the full if the Empire State is to 
flourish during the coming generations. 



CHAPTER VI 

RESULTS OF WOODLOT MANAGEMENT 

Cost of Forestry 

Woodland owned in connection with a farm or country estate 
is ordinarily managed with one of two ends in view — either : 

Aesthetic, the beautifying of the property through the pres- 
ence of forest growth; or 

Commercial, the raising of timber for profit where successive 
crops of trees are grown primarily for the cash proceeds 
received from their sale. It is undoubtedly true that any grow- 
ing forest is attractive, and so adds to the appearance of the 
property, but, in the latter case, the species are selected and 
favored solely with technical value in mind. In both instances 
the land growing the trees and the trees themselves represent 
capital which if not invested in forest land could be invested in 
bonds, mortgages, etc., and then would be yielding a cash return. 

If a grove or park forest upon an estate is maintained for its 
beauty alone, the pleasure derived must be worth the income 
that might be obtained from the investment of the forest capital 
it represents. Usually it is worth many times that sum and the 
owner would often rather lose his house than his woodland, 
since the former could be rebuilt in a year, while the trees could 
not be replaced in a century. According to the same reasoning, 
a woodlot should yield its return principally in valuable forest 
products, and since it is a piece of soil needed for utilitarian 
purposes, it should be ranked as a producing portion of the farm 
and its income carefully computed. 

The largest immediate return from woodland is obtained by 
destructive lumbering; by cutting the woodland clean, and then 
abandoning it to fire and weeds, for several decades. Such 
management is comparable to the system of land tillage often 
referred to as "Soil Mining," cropping the land year after year 
with no thought of putting anything back in the form of 
manures or fertilizers, a system which destroys both local and 

[103] 



104 The Neiv York State College of Forestry 

national prosperity in the long run. Both of these systems of 
land management unfortunately have been far too widely prac- 
ticed in the United States and in New York. Both were unde- 
sirable enough when vast stretches of virgin forests and enor- 
mous areas of new land were then available for, when the old 
lands were stripped and exhausted the lumberman or farmer 
could move to a new region. At present, this country stands at 
the threshold of a new era. The period of free land has passed, 
the end of the virgin forests is in sight, and each state, each 
individual, must develop every resource with a shrewd eye to the 
future. 

Just as conservative agriculture means a smaller present 
income owing to money spent for fertilizers, etc., so does the 
practice of forestry mean reduced present profit for the purpose 
of increasing future returns.* It means foregoing present 
profits by leaving seed trees and young fast-growing trees and 
often the reinvesting of a portion of the income in 'a profitable 
business. Let it not be thought that forestry, the management 
of non-agricultural soils for repeated tree crops costs nothing. 
It does, but it means putting aside one dollar to-day and reaping 
ten at the end of the rotation. 

Regulating the Cut 

In countries where forest management has long been prac- 
ticed, the height of the forester's ambition is to make his forest 
"normal." That is, by carefully calculated plans carried out 
over a period of years, eventually the forest may, for the given 
rotation and soil, possess exactly the right proportion of age 
classes; may have exactly the right amount of growing stock 
and may be producing just the right amount of new wood 
(increment) each year. The process of transforming an abnor- 
mal into a normal forest by means of proper cuttings is called 
regulation. 

* Continental experience proves that in a well-managed forest not only 
does the amount of timber steadily increase but the quality improves all of 
the time. A record for the last half of the past century for the State for- 
ests of Saxony showed that while the amount cut per year doubled during 
that period, not only did the forest capital increase 16 per cent but the 
amount of the crop which yielded saw logs increased from 11 to 54 per 
cent. The gross income increased 234 per cent and the net revenue over 
80 per cent. Economics of Forestry, p. 49, by Dr. B. E. Fernow. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 



105 



The above strict interpretation of a normal forest has little 
importance for the average woodlot or small forest owner in this 
country. For such a man, regulation means limiting the cut 
to the growth, and while the increment should be made as great 
as possible, yet the presence of age classes in exact amount is 
beyond his possibilities. JSTor in practice is it always desirable 
to cut an equal amount each year. In years of high prices it 
may be good financial management to cut heavily, and then do 
no cutting whatever for several years. In practically every case, 
the amount cut by the small owner should be largely governed 
by market conditions, and occasionally when the cut of timber 
really mature is limited, it may be necessary to remove some 
sticks not quite mature in order to obtain an amount sufficient 
to make a sale possible. As a rule, the amount cut in a year 
or decade should not exceed the amount grown in that period. 

In the typical woodlot, the first step in the way of building 
up a rundown stand would be to remove the over-mature and 
diseased, decrepit specimens. This might be done primarily 
for the purpose of harvesting the old veterans before they com- 
pletely decay, yet such a cutting would serve to increase the 
increment as a result of replacing old, slow-going trees with 
young, thrifty reproduction and by giving more light to the 
middle-aged and young trees remaining. In addition a sanitary 




Plate 16. Liberation Cutting. The removal of the wide-spreading "wolf 
tree," the eighty-year old chestnut, will liberate the crowded and over- 
topped thirty-year old pine and greatly improve the condition of the 
forest growth. 



106 The New York State College of Forestry 

cleaning would result, since the removal of diseased trees would 
check the dissemination of fungus spores, etc. Such a prelimi- 
nary cutting could be followed from time to time by periodic 
cuttings in which the mature trees could be taken out singly or 
in groups. However, the owner should use some plan whereby 
he cuts no more than the amount laid on during the period, 
unless he desires to add to his increment by planting. 

Roth* advises dividing the woodlot into, say, ten cutting areas 
and removing about one-fourth the total volume from each area 
each year, and at the end of the tenth year plot number one 
could again be cut over. Such a plan would give a fixed annual 
cut, and by favoring the faster growing species, and occasionally 
planting up openings with rapid-growing conifers, the increment 
could be further increased. 

The above method would provide a system of harvesting the 
forest crops, but a check should be provided regarding the 
amount of growth. After the first cutting has removed the old vet- 
erans, the average yearly growth of the remainder could be found 
by dividing the number of board feet standing upon an acre 
by the average age of the stand obtained by felling several aver- 
age trees and counting the rings. This result would be a highly 
conservative idea of the volume which the forest could produce 
each year. By insisting that the periodic cuttings recurring, 
for instance, every five years, should not remove more than five 
times the amount of the average annual growth, so computed 
( t0 total r a^e th ) overcutting will be prevented. Such a check, while 
rough, will doubtless serve for a few periods, and by that 
time the increment should have markedly increased when a 
more exact method might be required. 

Rotations 

The length of time elapsing from the beginning of a forest 
until the time the crop is harvested is called the rotation. The 
length of this period is determined by several factors. 

In some instances it is desired to cut the forest at a time 
when it can best reproduce itself. This is called the Silvicul- 
tural Rotation. 



* Forest [Regulation, by Filibert Roth, p. 159. 



Forestry for the Private Oivner 107 

Or the forest crop may be harvested when the net return — 
the final cash yield less the value of the land, planting costs, etc., 
computed at compound interest up to the time, will be the 
highest possible interest rate on the investment. 

Financial Rotation 

On account of the laws of compound interest, a certain 
forest crop may yield 5i/o per cent compounded at sixty 
years, but owing to the rapid increase of the sum represent- 
ing the planting cost, land value, taxes, etc., during the 
next thirty years, by the time ninety years is reached the 
investment might not yield more than 4 per cent. 

In most cases of woodlot management, it is the technological 
rotation — the time necessary to produce material of a given size 
— that is of prime importance. 

For reasons given below, the private owner in this country 
will be compelled to grow the smaller sized timber, as he cannot 
afford to wait a long time for his dividend, nor can he afford 
the low interest rate on his forest investment which a long 
rotation demands. 

The states and the federal government alone will be able to 
grow large timbers, and the coming generations will be com- 
pelled to use much smaller timber and of decidedly inferior 
quality compared with what we use to-day. 

According to Roth,* the following rotations would hold for 
some of the principal products : 

Cordwood. Rarely grown as a crop in itself. The bulk of 
cordwood now coming upon the market is from the tops and 
branches left after a lumbering operation. (Throughout the 
lower Hudson valley where cordwood for the brick yards has 
been an important crop for many years, it was customary to 
clear out the sprout hardwoods every twenty to twenty-five 
years.) 

Pulpwood. Of late years, trees of all sizes have been turned 
into pulp on account of the extreme demand for paper stock. 
Native spruce or balsam fir from plantations can probably be 
cut at fifty to sixty years with best results. There are indica- 

* Forest Eegulation, by Filibert Roth, p. 109. 



108 The Neiv York State College of Forestry 

lions that the European or Norway spruce may grow more 
rapidly than the native species, thus somewhat shortening the 
above rotation. European larch and Scotch pine will probably 
yield pulp stock in thirty to forty years. 

Railway ties,, telephone poles, etc. The rotation necessary to 
produce these products varies widely with the species. Chestnut 
was considered to produce its best yields, both financially and 
from the standpoint . of largest tie production, at about fifty-five 
years,* while white cedar poles may take 150 years. 

Red oak, which will probably supplant chestnut as the tie 
tree of the East will take a few years longer, about sixty to 
sixty-five years. 

Saw timber. The saw timber now coming upon the market 
was produced at no cost and the American lumberman has been 
harvesting the growth of centuries. (One authority estimates 
that it took 200 to 250 years to produce the average tree fur- 
nishing lumber for the market to-day.) 

European experience proves that when forest crops are grown 
artificially, large-sized timber largely disappears as the cost 
of production (figured upon a compound interest basis) is 
excessive. 

For saw timber, Rotlrf estimates that twelve inches breast 
high will prove the minimum diameter for saw timber, and 
naturally the time to produce a tree of this size will vary accord- 
ing to species and site quality. The range would be as follows :$ 

J/0 years or less: 

Poplar, soft maple and elm on moist fertile lands. 

40-60 years: 

White ash, red oak, chestnut, elm, basswood and white pine 
(for box and barnboard stock). 

60-80 years: 

Red pine, white pine ( for interior trim, etc. ) , hickory and tulip 
poplar. 



* Forest Service Bulletin No. 53, Chestnut in Southern Maryland. 

t Forest Regulation, p. 111. 

t To produce saw timber even on the best sites early thinnings would be 
highly desirable in order that undue competition could be reduced as soon 
as possible. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 109 

Trees like red spruce, hemlock, beech, birch and hard maple 
would take anywhere from 90 to 120 years to reach saw log 
size, and the average woodlot owner would not start out with 
the idea of growing such a long-time crop as any of the above. 
As single trees or small groups in the stand, such species might 
be encouraged for sake of variety, but for saw purposes, etc., 
the major crop should be composed of the faster growing species. 

Shortening the Rotations 

The time element in the past has been one of the greatest 
drawbacks to the practice of forestry by the individual, for the 
average owner has felt that only the State or corporations like 
water companies and pulp companies having a continuous exist- 
ence could afford to wait for the harvest. If methods of forest 
management can be instituted which will shorten the rotation 
so that the investor starting early may receive some returns 
during his life or at least have a handsome return accrue to the 
next generation, the practice of forestry by the individual land 
owners will be much more widespread.* 

Other factors which have worked against private for- 
estry are the limited negotiability of half-grown timber in 
the average community and the danger from fire. With 
each passing year the effect of the educational campaign 
advocating the proper protection of our forest areas is 
becoming more apparent and before very long, a large part 
of this risk will be eliminated, since individuals and com- 
munities will strive together to stamp out the fire danger. 
Concerning negotiability, the decrease in amount of 
certain kinds of stumpage is causing a marked apprecia- 
tion in values of standing timber. 

In certain parts of this State where markets are unus- 
ually good, half-grown pine timber, for instance, can be 
readily sold at a fair price, since far-seeing men realize the 

* The present system of taxation, whereby a crop of trees maturing at 
fifty years has paid an annual tax every year of its existence, has also 
deterred many from acquiring land for forestry purposes or from holding 
on to cutover land. During the New York Legislative sessions of 1919 a 
series of bills aiming to improve this condition were introduced, but did 
not pass beyond the committee stage. Another effort is being made during 
the present session (1920) to lighten the tax load which forest land bears 
under present conditions. 



110 The New York State College of Forestry 

future value of such seedling land. When forests are both 
safe and negotiable, they will be rated much higher as 
good, long-term investments, yielding a fair revenue. 

Rotations may be shortened by suiting the species to the site 
and by early and frequent thinnings which will permit all the 
available growing energy to be utilized by the marketable trees 
only. As far as financial considerations are concerned, these 
thinnings should furnish cash income quite a few years prior 
to the main harvest. (This is along the same lines as growing 
corn or beans between the rows of immature apple trees in a 
young orchard. ) 

Another method having possibilities is, when starting a plan- 
tation, to plant several hundred extra trees like balsam or spruce 
per acre, and after ten or twelve years, remove the extra trees 
and sell them for Christmas trees. Several land owners are 
trying this plan at present, but as yet no definite figures are 
available. Granting, however, that such an operation were 
located reasonably close to the cities and larger centers of popu- 
lation, where there is a definite demand for Christmas tree stock, 
and where the factor of transportation will not consume the 
larger bulk of the profits, returns of from $200 to $250 per acre 
net are indicated with reasonable surety on rotations extending 
over ten to twelve years. 

Forests as Investments 

Aside from the lack of negotiability of forest land and stand- 
ing timber, and the risk, the uncertainty of returns, both as to 
time and rate per cent, have prevented men of large means 
from managing forests as real investments. In this country, 
as in England and on the continent, there is a certain amount of 
prestige attached to the ownership of large landed properties, 
yet most of the largest forest owners have bought either for 
game parks or on speculation, and the idea of managing forest 
land for the purpose of obtaining a continuous or periodic 
income has been grasped only by a few foresighted men. The 
question of how much can you expect such an investment to 
yield is one that must be answered before forest management, 
on the basis of sustained yield, becomes general. Undoubtedly 
good stands of timber of the right species well-located as to rail- 
roads or drivable streams, are good investments, since the value 



Forestry for the Private Owner 111 

of standing timber, especially in the East, seems certain to rise 
steadily during the next generation. The purchase of lands for 
speculative purposes, however, will hardly aid in right use of 
non-agricultural areas. 

Paper and pulp concerns, water companies, etc., will doubt- 
less buy and manage land for sustained yield when they are 
convinced that such management is profitable. 

What interest rate can forests yield, and how much should 
they be expected to return ? 

In security markets, the more secure an investment, the 
smaller is the return, as a rule, and ordinarily long-term invest- 
ments do not pay as high a rate as short term notes. Forest 
land, as previously stated, is not an absolutely safe investment 
at present, nor is it readily sold, but both of these undesirable 
features are decreasing from year to year. The forest resources 
of Germany pay a constant revenue of 3 per cent per annum 
on a capital value of $180 per acre,* and this rate per cent may 
be taken as the minimum in this country, with the possibility 
of "extra dividends" due to increased stumpage values. 

The planting of cheap land to pine has been recommended 
as a good investment, but one naturally of long duration. The 
Massachusetts State Foresterf claims that plantations of white 
pine in that state will yield 5 per cent compound interest, based 
on 1911 stumpage prices. This figure could then be taken for 
a maximum. As a general rule, it may be said that the State 
and federal governments will be justified in practising forestry 
even though the direct financial returns are no more than 2^ 
to 41/2 per cent. The private owner will not be content with 
such a small return, consequently must shorten his rotations by 
every means possible. 

In Europe, gross income ranging from four dollars to twelve 
dollars, and net revenues from two dollars to seven dollars per 
acre per year were received, before the war. Owing to the wide 
difference in labor and transportation costs, uncertain demands 
and unstable market conditions which obtain in this country, it 
is impossible to draw any parallel from these figures. However, 
it is an aboslute certainty that money now shrewdly invested in 

* Economics of Forestry, by Dr. B. E. Fernow, p. 50. 
t Forest Mensuration of White Pine. Mass. State Forester, Boston, 
Mass., 1911. 



112 The New York State College of Forestry 



forest lands or forest plantations will show an excellent return 
at the end of the rotation, and every owner of land nnsuited to 
agriculture should set his idle land to work with the same zeal 
that he shows in keeping his spare cash always employed. 

Financial Returns 

It can be definitely shown that the financial returns from 

investments in forest production approximate those from other 

forms of investment enterprise, and that forestry can earn 

between 6 and 7 per cent on the capital invested. Three types 

of planting are taken as illustration, pure white pine, pure red 

pine, and an equal mixture of red and white pine. The figures 

at the basis of this computing were furnished by Prof. K. 0. 

TIawley and O. W. Pfleuger, of the Yale School of Forestry, and 

are the results of ten years' experience in planting and active 

forestry practice for the water company at New Haven, Conn. 

For the purpose. of calculation, the interest rate of 5 per cent was 

adopted arbitrarily. Such rate is slightly in excess at present of 

that offered by savings bank mortgages and other long-time 

investments. 

Basis of Calculation 



Plantation 


Estimated Yield per Acre 
in Board Feet 


Estimated value 
per 1,000 board 
feet at cutting 


50 years 


40 years 




42,000 
37,000 

37,000 


28,000 
25,000 

25,000 


$20.00 
20.00 


Red pine and white 


20.00 







Costs* 

Establishment and planting $15 . 00 per acre 

Treatment for white pine weevil ( on pure white 

pine only) expended annually fifth to tenth 

y ear .50 per acre 

Cleanings, third year . 50 per acre 

Protection . 20 per acre per year 

Value of the laud devoted to forestry, apart 

from timber 10 . 00 per acre 

Taxes on forest land apart from the timber . 20 per acre per year 

Eate of interest used in calculations 5% 

Yield tax on the timber apart from the land at 

time of rotation 15% 

* Based on 1920 prices for the same grade of timber. 




Figure 14. Second Growth Pine Forest. Forests when properly pro- 
tected against fire constitute investments similar to long term bonds. 
A planted pine forest will yield approximately 6 per cent per annum 
with maturity at forty to fifty years. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 



113 



Plantation 


Net income per 

acre at end of 

rotation 


Rate of interest 

earned by the 

investment 


Net annual return 

per acre above 

5% interest cost 




50 years 


40 years 


50 years 


40 years 


50 years 


40 years 




$315.70 
273.74 

273.74 


$233.86 
209.56 

209.56 


6.5 
6.2 

6.2 


6.9 
6.6 

6.6 


1.52 
1.31 

1.31 


1.93 
1.74 


lied pine and white 
pine in equal mix- 


1.74 







It will at once be seen that fifty-year rotation for pure white 
pine yields $81.8-1 actual cash return more than a forty-year 
rotation. But it costs $208.60 more to raise fifty-year-old white 
pine than forty-year stock, hence the forty-year rotation earns 
at a rate of interest 0.4 per cent more than the fifty-year 
rotation. 

Similarly in the pure red pine and the mixed red and white 
plantation for a fifty-year rotation, there is shown an actual cash 
receipt of $64.18 greater than for the forty-year rotation. But 
here again, due to the smaller cost of producing forty-year-old 
trees, the forty-year rotation shows an earned rate of interest 
4- per cent greater than for the fifty-year rotation. 

A comparison of the pure white pine with the pure red pine 
and with the mixed plantation shows an excess of $41.96 cash 
receipts in the fifty-year rotation and $24.30 in the forty-year 
rotation. The rate of interest earned on that investment is also 
better by 0.3 per cent for the pure white pine. 

It is thus demonstrated that the returns capable from pro- 
ducing timber in plantations makes such enterprises from a 
financial standpoint quite comparable with other forms of 
investment. It is to be remembered that the foregoing estimate 
is based on present prices. Every indication seems to point out 
the fact that prices for standing timber on the stump, i. e., 
stumpage values, will increase so that greater returns than those 
noted above might be expected. 

It may be asked how great a value of land can be allowed in 
forest production. Forestry only concerns itself with lands 
unsuited for agriculture. Hence the value of the lands devoted 
to forest production can not be placed at a very high figure. 



114 The New York State College of Forestry 

From a trial of various values, the following values for land 
were computed as the highest values for forest land that can be 
allowed without loss, when taxed at a twenty-mill rate, interest 
figured at 5 per cent. 





Fifty-year rotation 


Forty-year rotation 


White pine 


$23.15 
20.80 
20.80 


$27.40 
24.10 


Red pine 




24.10 



SUMMARY 

Undoubtedly, the raising of tree crops is an indispensable 
part of the nation's land program, and both the State and the 
private individuals should be encouraged to keep in forest every 
acre of non-agricultural soil. Such a movement will not only 
enrich the owner, but, by providing additional supplies of raw 
material to woodworking establishments, paper plants, etc., 
will add enormously to the income of skilled workmen, trans- 
portation companies, etc., and ultimately will add enormously 
to the income and prosperity of the whole State. 

Forestry no longer appeals for support on sentimental and 
aesthetic grounds alone. It is a movement essentially economic, 
and the right use of lands unsuited to agriculture is absolutely 
essential to the permanent prosperity of the country at large. 
The State itself should embark in the business of timber produc- 
tion, since it can afford to grow large timber on long rotations 
which the small owner can not do on account of the length of 
the rotation required and the fact that he must obtain a larger 
return for his invested capital. ]STot only should the State itself 
grow timber, but it should render all possible help to the small 
owner of non-agricultural land in order that he may grow and 
market repeated crops of valuable timber at a good profit, for 
no state is any more prosperous than its land-holding and 
operating element. 

Every acre of land within ISTew York State should be put to 
its best permanent use. Land that is level and fertile should be 
tilled and planted to field crops. Land too steep or too stony 
for tillage should be kept growing repeated crops of timber in 



Forestry for the Private Owner 115 

order that future generations may have supplies of an indis- 
pensable product and the owners may receive revenue from all 
their land. The farmer or small woodlot owner is in the best 
position of all private individuals to practice forestry for the 
following reasons : 

1. He owns the forest land in connection with tilled 
land, which produces an annual revenue. 

2. He has the ordinary equipment in axes, saws, horses, 
stone boats, sleds, etc. 

3. He has the time for woodlot improvements. On only 
small percentage of farms is the winter season completely 
filled. During slack periods in the winter, improvement 
cuttings can be made, while underplantings can be accom- 
plished to the vast improvement of the woodlot before 
ploughing time in the spring. 

4. In many cases, an organization is in existence — either 
the Grange or the County Bureau — which should assist 
him in marketing his products with a good profit. The 
Wood Utilization Service of the College of Forestry is glad 
to act as a clearing house for the sale of the stumpage and 
manufactured products owned by the citizens of the State. 

From every standpoint forest owners of this type should prac- 
tice forestry. Briefly summarized, the points to be kept in mind 
are as follows: 

1. The land in the woodlot represents capital as well as 
the tilled fields. It should be treated as a producing por- 
tion of the farm. 

2. Forest management is merely good business sense 
applied to a crop of trees. It plans to grow as much valu- 
able timber in the shortest time possible. 

3. The cuttings should aim to favor the best species, 
hence firewood and fence posts should be secured where 
removals will do the most good rather than where it is 
easiest to load on the sled. 

4. Fires and grazing should be prohibited. Both reduce 
the dividends from the woodlot. 



116 The Neiv York State College of Forestry 

5. The profit in the entire transaction lies in properly 
marketing the products of the woodlot. The same energy 
and business sense should be used in selling a crop of 
timber as in selling a crop of fruit or potatoes. Trees will 
not spoil while waiting and will grow while the owner 
sleeps. 

The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse, as the 
Institution founded by the State for instruction and research 
in forestry, offers its cooperation to every land owner and citizen 
of the Empire State in order that the problem of the right use 
of land may be solved for the benefit of the present and succeed- 
ing generations. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Berry, James B. Improving the Farm Woodlot. Bulletin, Georgia State 
College of Agriculture, Athens, Ga., Circular 31, November, 1916. 

Blackman, M. W., and Ellis, W. 0. Some Insect Enemies of Trees and 
Ornamental Shrubs. Bulletin No. 6, vol. xvi, No. 26, New York State 
College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y., 1916. 

Bray, William L. The Development of Vegetation in New York State. 
Technical Publication No. 3, vol. xvi, No. 2, New York State College 
of Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y., 1916. 

Brown, Nelson C. The Hardwood Distillation Industry of New York 
State. Technical Publication No. 5, vol. xvii, No. 1, New York State 
College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y., 1917. 

Brown, N. C, and Tryon, H. H. Wood Utilization Directory of New York 
State. Technical Publication No. 6, vol. xvii, No. 5, New York State 
College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y., 1917. 

Cary, Austin.. A Manual for Northern Woodsmen. Harvard University 
Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1919. 

Cheyney, E. G., and Wentling, J. P. The Farm Woodlot. The Macmillan 
Company, New York, 1914. 

Ferguson, John A. Farm Forestry. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 
1916. 

Fernow, B. E. Economics of Forestry. Thomas V. Crowell & Co., New 
York, 1902. 

Foster, J. H. Marketing White Pine in New Hampshire. New Hamp- 
shire State College of Agriculture, Extension Bulletin No. 3, Durham, 
N. H., 1914. 

Foster, J. H., and Millen, F. H., and Krausz, H. B. Farm Forestry. 
Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, Bulletin 42, College 
Station, Texas, 1917. 

Foster, J. FI. Plan for Better Forest Management of Woodlands. Pro- 
ceedings of American Foresters, July, 1914. 

Frothingham, E. H. The Status and Value of Farm Woodlots in the 

Eastern United States. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 481, 

Washington, D. G, 1917- 
Graves, Henry S. Forest Mensuration. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New 

York, 1910. 
Graves, Henry S. Principles of Handling Woodlands. John Wiley & 

Sons, Inc., New York, 1914. 
Graves, Henry S., and Ziegler, E. A. The Woodsman's Handbook. U. S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Bulletin 36, Washington, 

D. C, 1910. 
Graves, Henry S. National Forests and the Farmer. Year Book U. S. 

Department of Agriculture, 1914. 

[117] 



118 The New York State College of Forestry 

Graves, Henry S. The Practice of Forestry and the Private Owner. Year 
Book U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1899. 

Graves, Henry S. Private Forestry. U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
Circular 129, Washington, D. C. 

Graves, Henry S., and Fisher, K. T. The Woodlot. U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, Bulletin 42, Washington, D. C, 1903. 

Hawley, R. C. Forestry in Southern New England. American Forestry, 
January, 1920. 

Hawley, R. C, and Hawes, A. F. Forestry in New England. John Wiley 
& Sons, Inc., New York, 1912. 

Jones, R. C. Farm Forestry in Virginia. Virginia Geological Commis- 
sion, Office of the State Forester, Bulletin No. 12, University of Vir- 
ginia, Charlottesville, Va., 1917. 

Lamb, G. N., and Kratjsz, H. B. Industries Using North Carolina Farm 
Timber. North Carolina State College of Agriculture and Engineering, 
Extension Circular No. 73, Raleigh, N. C, 1918. 

Lovejoy, P. S. The Segregation of Farm from Forest Land. Journal of 
Forestry, October, 1919. 

Mattoon, W. R., and Barrows, W. B. Measuring and Marketing Woodlot 
Products. U S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 715, 
Washington, D. C, 1916. 

Moon, F. F. Cooperative Marketing of Woodlot Products. Proceedings of 
American Foresters, July, 1914. 

Moon, F. F. The Book of Forestry. D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1916. 

Moon, F. F., and Brown, N. C. Elements of Forestry. John Wiley & Sons, 
Inc., New York. 

Moon, F. F. Forest Conditions of Warren County, New York. New York 
Conservation Commission Bulletin No. 6, Albany, N. Y., 1911. 

Pinchot, Gifeord. The Primer of Forestry, Part I: The Forest. U. S. 
Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 173, Washington, D. C. 

Pinchot, Gifeord. The Primer of Forestry, Part II: Practical Forestry. 
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 358, Washington, 
D. C. 

Rosenbluth, R. Woodlot Forestrv. New York Conservation Commission 
Bulletin No. 9, Albany, N. Y./ 1913. 

Roth, Filibert. Forest Regulation. Michigan Manual of Forestry, vol. 1, 
F. Roth, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1914. 

Stephen, J. W. Making Best Use of the Idle Lands in New York. New 
York State College of Forestry, Circular 19, vol. xvii, No. 25, Syracuse, 
N. Y, 1917. 

Stephen, J. W. Basket Willow Culture in New York State. New York 
State College of Forestry, Circular 18, vol. xvii, No. 24, Syracuse, 
N. Y, 1918. 

Smith, H. A. The Farm Woodlot Problem. Year Book U. S. Department 
of Agriculture, 1914. 

Tillotson, C. R. Care and Improvement of the Woodlot. U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 711, Washington, D. C, 1916. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 119 

Totjmey, James W. Seeding and Planting. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New 
York, 1918. 

Zon, Raphael. Forests and Water in the Light of Scientific Investiga- 
gations. Appendix V, Final Report of the National Waterways Com- 
mission, p. 226, Washington, D. C, 1905. 

Reforesting Waste and Cutover Land. New Hampshire For- 
estry Commission, Bulletin IV, Concord, N. H. 

The Reforestation of Cutover and Idle Lands in New York. 



New York State College of Forestry Circular 2, vol. xiii, No. 1-a, Syra- 
cuse, N. Y, 1913. 

Hints for the Woodlot Owner. New York State College of For- 



estry, Folder 3, Syracuse, N. Y., 1913. 

Wood Utilization Service. New York State College of Forestry, 



Folder 8, Syracuse, N. Y, 1916. 

Forest Mensuration of White Pine. Massachusetts State For- 



ester's Office, Boston, Mass., 1911. 



UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
PUBLICATIONS 



The Preservative Treatment of Farm Timber. Farmers' Bulletin 744. 
Machinery for. Cutting Firewood. Farmers' Bulletin 1023. 
Waste Land and Wasted Land on Farms. Farmers' Bulletin 745. 
What the Farm Contributes Directly to the Farmer's Living. Farmers' 

Bulletin 635. 
Uses of Chestnut Timber Killed by the Bark Disease. Farmers' Bulletin 

528. 
The Ashes: Their Characteristics and Management. Department Bulletin 

299. 
The Commercial Hickories. Forest Service Bulletin 80. 
Scrub Pine. Forest Service Bulletin 94. 

Forest Planting in the Eastern United States. Department Bulletin 153. 
The Status and Value of Farm Woodlots in the Eastern United States. 

Department Bulletin 481. 
How to Pack and Ship Young Forest Trees. Forest Service Circular 55. 
How to Transplant Forest Trees. Forest Service Circular 61. 
Black Locust. Forest Service Circular 64. 
Black Walnut. Forest Service Circular 58. 
Norway Spruce. Forest Leaflet 12. 
Red Cedar. Forest Leaflet 20. 

Protection of Forests from Fire. Forest Service Bulletin 82. 
Making Woodlands Profitable in the Southern States. Farmers' Bulletin 

1071. 



120 The New York State College of Forestry 
STATE PUBLICATIONS ON FARM FORESTRY 



Circulars or bulletins on various phases of farm forestry have been pub- 
lished by many of the States. No attempt is made here to list these pub- 
lications. Applications from those desiring information about them should 
be addressed to the following: 

New Hampshire — Forestry Commission, State House, Concord, N. II. 

Maryland — State Forester, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 

West Virginia — Director of Extension, Agricultural College, Morgan- 
town, W. Va. 

Kentucky — State Forester, Old State House, Frankfort, Ky. 

Tennessee — State Forester, State Geological Survey, Nashville, Tenn. 

North Carolina — State Forester, University of North Carolina, Chapel 
Hill, N. C. ; Director of Extension, Agricultural College, Raleigh, 
N. C. 

South Carolina — Director of Extension, Clemson College, S. C. 

Georgia — Department of Forestry, Agricultural College, Athens, Ga. 

Florida — Director of Extension, Agricultural College, Gainesville, Fla. 

Alabama — Director of Extension, Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala. 

Mississippi— Director of Extension, Agricultural College, Miss. 

Louisiana — Superintendent of Forestry, Conservation Commission, New 
Orleans, La.; Director of Extension, Agricultural College, Baton 
Rouge, La. 

Texas — State Forester, College of Agriculture, College Station, Texas. 



APPENDIX 



[121] 



TABLES 

TABLE 1 
Surveyor's Measure (Linear) 
1 link = 0.01 chain = 0.66 foot = 7.92 inches 

100 links = 1.00 chain = 4 rods = 66.00 feet 

80 chains = 1.00 mile = 320 rods = 5,280 feet 



TABLE 2 
Surveyor's Measure (Square) 
1 acre — 160 square rods = 10 square chains = 43,560 square feet. 
40 acres = a square whose side is 1,320 feet = 80 rods, 20 chains or *4 
mile in length. 

640 acres = 1 square mile or a square whose side is 1 mile. 



TABLE 3 

Useful Equivalents and Converting Factors* 



Equals 



One cubic foot of round timber 

One cord (fuel wood averaging 5" or less at middle diameter of 

sticks) , size of pile 4x4x8' 

One cord (fuel wood averaging 6" or more at middle diameter of 

sticks) , size of pile 4x4x8' 

One cord spruce pulp wood 

One telephone pole 7" (diameter at top)x 30' 

One telephone pole 9" (diameter at top)x 30' 

One standard railroad tie 6 x 8" x 8' 

One railroad tie 7 x 9" x 8' 

One post 6" (in diameter) x 7' 

One standard cord stacked wood 



6 


board feet 


333J board feet 


500 


board feet 


550 


board feet 


60 


board feet 


100 


board feet 


30 


board feet 


35 


board feet 


i 


board feet 


90 


cubic feet 



* Taken from "The National Forest Manual" 1915. 

[123] 



±24 The Neiv York State College of Forestry 



APPLICATION OF LOG RULES 

Scale only the sound material in each log. First scale the log as sound, 
taking diameter measurements inside of the bark at the small end of the 
log, and the length to the nearest even foot. Disregard the excess allowed 
for trimming length. With the diameter and length gotten, look up the 
board foot values for the corresponding dimensions in the tabulated log 
rule accepted for use on that job. This gives the gross scale for the log. 
If there is no defect, the gross scale automatically becomes the net scale. 
If defect is present, scale the defective portion as if it were a log, and look 
up its board foot value. Deduct this figure from the gross scale of the log 
to get the net scale. Only net scale values should be entered into the tally 
book. In a properly conducted scale, each and every log should be sepa- 
rately examined. 



Forestry for the Private Oivner 



125 



TABLE 4 
Doyle Log Rule 







Co 


vtents in Board Feet 


Top diameter — 


LENGTH OF LOG IN FEET 




6 


8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


6 


1.5 
3.4 
6 
9 

13 

18 

24 

30 

37 

45 

54 

63 

73 

84 

96 
108 
121 
135 
150 
165 
181 
198 
216 
234 
253 
273 
294 
315 
337 
359 
383 
408 
433 
459 
486 


2.0 
4.5 
8 

12 

18 

24 

32 

40 

50 

60 

72 

84 ' 

98 
112 
128 
144 
162 
180 
200 
220 
242 
264 
288 
312 
338 
364 
392 
420 
450 
480 
512 
544 
578 
612 
648 


2.5 ' 
5.6 

10 

16 

22 

31 

40 

51 

62 

76 

90 
106 
122 
141 
160 
181 
202 
226 
250 
276 
302 
331 
360 
391 
422 
456 
490 
526 
562 
601 
640 
6S1 
722 
766 
810 


3.0 
6.8 

12 

19 

27 

37 

48 

61 

75 

91 
108 
127 
147 
169 
192 
217 
243 
271 
300 
331 
363 
397 
432 
469 
507 
547 
588 
631 
675 
721 
768 
817 
867 
919 
972 


3.5 
7.9 

14 

22 

31 

43 

56 

71 

87 
106 
126 
148 
171 
197 
224 
253 
283 
316 
350 
386 
423 
463 
504 
547 
591 
638 
686 
736 
787 
841 
896 
953 
1011 
1072 
1134 


4 

9 

16 

25 

36 

49 

64 

81 

100 

121 

144 

169 

196 

225 

256 

289 

324 

361 

400 

441 

484 

529 

576 

625 

676 

729 

784 


7 


8 . . ... 


9 


10 

11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


32 


33 

34 

35 


841 

900 

961 

1024 

1089 


36 

37 


38 


1156 


39 


1225 


40 


1296 







126 The New York State College of Forestry 



TABLE 5 
Sceibner Decimal C Log Rule 





Contents in Board Feet 


Top 
















diameter — 






LENGTH c 






inches 


















6 


8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


6 


5 


5 


10 


10 


10 


20 


20 


7 


5 


10 


10 


20 


20 


30 


30 


8 


10 


10 


20 


20 


20 


30 


30 


9 


10 


20 


30 


30 


30 


40 


40 


10 


20 


30 


30 


30 


40 


60 


60 


11 


20 


30 


40 


40 


50 


70 


80 


12 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


13 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


100 


110 


14 


40 


60 


70 


90 


100 


110 


130 


15 


50 


70 


90 


110 


120 


140 


160 


16 


60 


80 


100 


120 


140 


160 


180 


17 


70 


90 


120 


• 140 


160 


180 


210 


18 


80 


110 


130 


160 


190 


210 


240 


19 


90 


120 


150 


180 


210 


240 


270 


20 


110 


140 


170 


210 


240 


280 


310 


21 


120 


150 


190 


230 


270 


300 


340 


22 


130 


170 


210 


250 


290 


330 


380 


23 


140 


190 


230 


280 


330 


380 


420 


24 


150 


210 


250 


300 


350 


400 


450 


25 


170 


230 


290 


340 


400 


460 


520 


26 


190 


250 


310 


370 


440 


500 


560 


27 


210 


270 


340 


400 


480 


550 


620 


28 


220 


290 


360 


440 


510 


580 


650 


29 


230 


310 


380 


460 


530 


61-0 


680 


30 


250 


330 


410 


490 


570 


660 


740 


31 


270 


360 


440 


530 


620 


710 


800 


32 


280 


370 


460 


550 


040 


740 


830 


33 


290 


390 


490 


590 


690 


780 


880 


34 


300 


400 


500 


600 


700 


800 


900 


35 


330 


440 


550 


660 


770 


880 


980 


36 


350 


460 


580 


690 


810 


920 


1040 


37 


390 


510 


640 


770 


900 


1030 


1160 


38 


400 


540 


670 


800 


930 


1070 


1200 


39 


420 


560 


700 


840 


980 


1120 


1260 


40 


450 


600 


750 


900 


1050 


1200 


1350 



Forestry for the Private Owner 



127 



TABLE 6 
International Log Rule 







Contents oe 


Logs in 


Board Feet* 




Top 
diameter — 




LENGTH OF LOG IN FEET 






inches 
















8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


6 


10 


10 


15 


20 


20 


25 


30 


7 


15 


15 


20 


25 


30 


35 


45 


8 


20 


25 


30 


35 


45 


50 


60 


9 


25 


30 


40 


50 


55 


65 


75 


10 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


85 


95 


11 


40 


50 


65 


75 


90 


105 


115 


12 


50 


65 


75 


90 


105 


125 


140 


13 


60 


75 


90 


110 


130 


145 


165 


14 


70 


90 


110 


130 


150 


175 


195 


15 


80 


105 


125 


150 


175 


200 


225 


16 


95 


120 


145 


170 


200 


230 


260 


17 


105 


135 


165 


195 


225 


260 


295 


18 


120 


155 


185 


220 


255 


295 


330 


19 


135 


175 


210 


250 


290 


330 


370 


20 


150 


195 


235 


275 


320 


365 


410 


21 


170 


215 


260 


305 


355 


405 


455 


22.i 


185 


235 


285 


340 


390 


445 


500 


23 


205 


260 


315 


370 


430 


490 


550 


24 


225 


285 


345 


405 


470 


535 


600 


25 


245 


310 


375 


445 


510 


580 


650 


26 


265 


335 


405 


480 


555 


630 


705 


27 


290 


365 


440 


520 


600 


735 


765 


28 


310 


395 


475 


560 


645 


790 


825 


29 


335 


425 


510 


605 


695 


845 


885 


30 


360 


455 


550 


645 


745 


905 


950 



Based on Sawkerf of one-eighth inch. 



128 The New York State College of Forestry 

TABLE 7 
New York Standard Dimick or Glens Falls Rule* 









Diameter in Inches 


















FEET 


















3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


4 


.009 


.01 


.02 


.03 


.04 


.00 


.07 


5 


.01 


.02 


.03 


.04 


.05 


.07 


.08 


6 


.01 


.02 


.03 


.05 


.06 


.08 


.10 




.02 


.02 


.04 


.05 


.08 


.10 


.12 


8 


.02 


.02 


.04 


.06 


.09 


.11 


.14 


9 


.02 


.03 


.05 


.07 


.10 


.12 


.15 


10 


.02 


.03 


.05 


.08 


.11 


.14 


.17 


11 


.03 


.03 


.06 


.08 


.12 


.15 


.19 


12 


.03 


.04 


.06 


.09 


.13 


.17 


.20 


13 


.03 


.04 


.07 


.10 


.14 


.18 


.22 









Diameter in Inches 






FEET 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 '.-.. 

11 

12 

13 


.09 
.11 
.13 
.15 
.17 
.19 
.22 
.24 
.26 
.28 


.10 
.13 
.16 
.18 
.21 
.24 
.26 
.29 
.31 
.34 


.12 
.15 
.18 
22 
!25 
.28 
.31 
.34 
.37 
.40 


.14 
.18 
22 
!25 
.29 
.33 
.36 
.40 
.43 
.47 


.17 
.21 
.25 
.29 
.33 
.37 
.42 
.46 
.50 
.54 


.19 
.24 
.29 
.33 
.38 
.43 
.48 
.52 
.57 
.62 


.22 
.27 
.33 
. .38 
.44 
.49 
,55 
.60 
.66 
.71 







Diameter 


in Inches 




FEET 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


4 


.25 
.31 
.37 
.43 
.49 
.55 
.02 
.68 
.74 
.80 • 


.28 
.35 
.42 
.48 
.55 
.62 
.69 
.76 
.83 
.90 


.31 
.38 
.46 
.54 
.62 
.69 
.77 
.85 
.92 
1.00 


.34 
.43 
.51 
.60 
.68 
.77 
.85 
.94 
1.02 
1.11 


.3S 

.47 

.56 

.66 

.75 

.S4 

.94 

1.03 

1.13 

1 .22 


.41 


5 


.52 


6 


.62 




.72 


8 


.82 


9. . 


.93 


10 


1.03 


11 


1.13 


12 


1.24 


13 


1.34 







* A Dimick Standard is accepted as the equivalent of a log thirteen feet long 
and nineteen inches inside the bark at the smaller end. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 

TABLE 7— {Continued) 



129 



Length 




Diameter 


in Inches 






feet 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


4 


.45 

.57 

.68 

.79 

.90 

1.02 

1.13 

1.24 

1.36 

1.47 


.49 

.62 

.74 

.86 

.98 

1.11 

1.23 

1.35 

1.48 

1.60 


.53 

.67 

.80 

.93 

1.06 

1.20 

1.33 

1.46 

1.60 

1.73 


.58 
.72 
.86 
1.01 
1.15 
1.29 
1.44 
1.58 
1.73 
1.87 


.62 
.78 
.93 
1.09 
1.24 
1.40 
1.55 
1.71 
1.86 
2.02 


.67 


5 


83 


6 


1 00 


7 


1.17 


8 


1.34 


9 


1.50 


10 


1.67 


11 


1.84 


12 


2.00 


13 


2.17 











Diameter 


in Inches 






FEET 


29 


30 


31 


32 


33 


34 


4 


.72 
.90 
1.08 
1.25 
1.43 
1.61 
1.79 
1.97 
2.15 
2.33 


.77 
.96 
1.15 
1.34 
1.53 
1.72 
1.92 
2.11 
2.30 
2.49 


.82 
1.02 
1.23 
1.43 
1.64 
1.84 
2.05 
2.25 
2.46 
2.66 


.87 
1.09 
1.31 
1.53 
1.75 
1.97 
2.18 
2.40 
2.62 
2.84 


.93 
1.16 
1.39 
1.63 
3.86 
2.09 
2.32 
2.56 
2.79 
3.02 


.98 


5 


1.23 


6 


1.48 


7 


1.72 


8 


1.97 


9 


2.22 


10 


2.46 


11 


2.71 


12 


2.95 


13 


3.20 











Diameter 


in Inches 




FEET 


35 


36 


37 


38 


39 


40 


4 


1.04 
1.30 
1.56 
1.83 
2.09 
2.35 
2.61 
2.87 
3.13 
3.39 


1.10 
1.38 
1.66 
1.93 
2.21 
2.49 
2.76 
3.04 
3.31 
3.59 


1.17 
1.46 
1.75 
2.04 
2.33 
2.62 
2.92 
3.21 
3.50 
3.79 


1.23 
1.54 
1.85 
2.15 
2.46 
2.77 
3.08 
3.38 
3.69 
4.00 


1.30 

1.62 
1.94 
2.27 
2.59 
2.91 
3.24 
3.56 
3.89 
4.21 


1.36 


5 


1.70 


6 


2.04 


7 


2.39 


8 


2.73 


9 


3.07 


10 


3.41 


11 


3.75 


12 


4.09 


13 


4.43 







130 The Neiv York State College of Forestry 





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132 The New York State College of Forestry 



APPLICATION OF VOLUME TABLES 
A volume table, unlike a log rule, only applies to the given species for 
which it was made. Hence for every species represented in the field tally 
sheet a separate table must be consulted. The tally sheets should be to- 
tallied for all diameters, species and height classes and divided by the num- 
ber of acres actually covered to get the average number of trees per acre 
in each class. If the tally has been made by diameters alone, a secondary 
study should be carried out on a requisite number of trees in each species 
to get the average height class for each diameter width in the species. 
Consult a volume for each species for the volume of a tree represented 
within each class on the tally sheet. Multiply this volume value, which is 
the average value for a tree of that class, by the number of trees repre- 
sented in each class in the tally. Total all values within each species. 
Total for all species. This will give the stand per acre. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 



133 



Sterrett, 1915. 



TABLE 10 
Volume Table — White Ash 

Eastern States: Based on 475 trees 





Merchantable Volume 


in Board Feet — Scribner Rule 


D.B.H. ob 










in 
inches 




NUMBER 


OF 16-FOOT LOGS 




2 


2% 


3 


3% 


4 


4% 


5 


S 


32 


43 


51 


69 








9 


37 


50 


60 


80 








10 


42 


58 


70 


91 








11 


49 


6S 


80 


100 








12 


57 


78 


93 


120 


140 






13 


66 


90 


110 


130 


160 






14 


77 


100 


120 


150 


180 


200 


230 


15 


90 


120 


140 


170 


200 


230 


260 


16 


100 


130 


160 


190 


220 


260 


290 


17 


120 


150 


180 


210 


250 


290 


330 


18 




170 


200 


240 


280 


320 


370 


19 




190 


230 


270 


320 


360 


420 


20 




210 


250 


300 


360 


410 


470 


21 




230 


280 


340 


400 


460 


520 


22 




260 


310 


380 


450 


510 


590 


°3 




290 


350 


420 


500 


580 


660 


24 






380 


460 


550 


650 


740 


25 






420 


510 


610 


730 


830 


26 






460 


570 


680 


810 


920 


27 






510 


630 


760 


890 


1020 


28 






560 


690 


840 


980 


1130 


29 








760 


920 


1070 


1240 


30 








830 


1010 


1170 


1360 



134 The Neiv York State College of Forestry 



TABLE 11 
Volume Table — Aspen 



Marston, Frothingham, 1906 



Maine: Based on 362 trees 







Merchantable Volume 


in Cubic 


Feet 




D.B.H. ob 
in 


TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OF THE TREE IN FEET 


inches 


















30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


SO 


90 


6 


2.0 


2.5 


3.0 


3.5 


4.5 


6.0 




7 


3.5 


4.0 


4.5 


5.5 


7.0 


8.5 




8 


5.5 


6.0 


7.0 


8.0 


10.0 


11.5 


13.0 


9 


7.0 


8.0 


9.5 


11.0 


12.5 


14.5 


16.5 


10 


9.5 


10.5 


12.0 


14.0 


16.0 


18.0 


20.0 


jl 




13.5 


15.0 


17.0 


19.0 


21.5 


25.0 


12 




16.5 


18.0 


20.5 


23.0 


26.5 


30.0 


13 






21.5 


24.0 


27.0 


31.5 


36.0 


14 






25.0 


28.5 


32.0 


37.0 


43.0 


15 






28.0 


32.0 


37.0 


43.0 


51.0 ' 


16 








37.0 


43.0 


50.0 


59.0 


17 








43.0 


49.5 


57.0 


68.0 


18 








49.5 


57.0 


66.0 


76.0 


19 








56.0 


65.0 


75.0 


85.0 


20 








04.0 


74.0 


84.0 


95.0 



TABLE 12 

Volume Table — Aspen 

Marston, Frothingham, 1906 Maine: Based on 362 trees 







Merchantable Volume in Cords* 




D.B.H. ob 

in 


TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OF THE TREE IN FEET 


inches 




















30 40 


50 


00 


70 


SO 


90 


6 




0.02 0.03 


0.04 


0.05 


0.06 


0.07 








0.04 0.05 


0.06 


0.07 


0.08 


0.09 




S 




0.06 0.07 


0.08 


0.09 


0.10 


0.12 


0.15 


9 




0.08 0.09 


0.10 


0.12 


0.14 


0.16 


0.18 


10 




0.10 0.12 


0.13 


0.15 


0.18 


0.20 


0.22 


11 




0.15 


0.17 


0.19 


0.22 


0.24 


0.27 


12 




0.18 


0.20 


0.23 


0.26 


0.29 


0.33 


13 






0.24 


0.27 


0.31 


0.35 


0.40 


14 






0.27 


0.31 


0.36 


0.41 


0.48 


15 






0.32 


0.36 


0.41 


0.48 


0.57 


16 








0.41 


0.47 


0.56 


0.66 


17 








0.47 


0.54 


0.63 


0.75 


18 








0.54 


0.62 


0.71 


0.84 


19 










0.71 


0.80 


0.94 


20 










0.81 


0.91 


1.05 



* Converted from the original table in cubic feet on the basis of 90 cubic feet 
(solid) to the cord. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 



135 



TABLE 13 
Volume Table — Basswood 



Frothingham, 1915 

U. S. Forest Service Bulletin No. 285 



Lake States: Based on 319 trees 



D.B.H. ob 

in 

inches- 



S 
9 

10 
11 
12 
13 

14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28. 
29 
30 



Volume in Board Feet • — ■ Scribnee Rule 



NUMBER OP 16-FOOT LOGS 



16 
17 
IS 



iy 2 



21 
23 
26 
31 
38 



30 
36 
44 
53 
63 
75 
89 
100 
120 



2% 



43 

53 

60 

70 

80 

94 

110 

130 

150 

170 

190 

210 

240 

270 

300 

340 

380 



60 
69 
79 

90 
100 
120 
140 
160 
180 
210 
240 
270 
300 
340 
3S0 
420 
470 
520 
570 
620 
680 
740 
S00 



3% 



100 
110 
130 
150 
170 
190 
220 
250 
280 
320 
360 
400 
450 
500 
560 
620 
680 
750 
820 
890 
970 



130 
140 
160 
180 
200 
230 
260 
290 
330 
370 
420 
470 
520 
580 
650 
720 
790 
870 
960 
1040 
1130 



4% 



220 

240 

270 

300 

340 

380 

430 

480 

540 

600 

670 

750 

830 

920 

1010 

1100 

1190 

1290 



TABLE 14 
Volume Table — Beech 
Frothingham, 1915 
U. S. Forest Service Bulletin No. 285 



Michigan : Based on 285 trees 







Merchantable 


Volume 


in Board 


Feet 




D.B.H. ob 
in 


NUMBER OP 16-FOOT LOGS 


inches 


1 


iy 2 


2 


2y 3 


3 


3V 2 


4 


10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 


22 
25 
29 
35 
42 
50 


32 
36 
42 
50 
60 
75 


47 

52 

61 

74 

92 

120 

150 

180 

220 


67 
77 
91 
110 
130 
160 
190 
220 
260 
290 
330 
370 
400 
440 
490 
530 


87 
100 
120 
140 
170 
200 
230 
270 
310 
350 
390 
430 
470 
520 
570 
620 


110 
130 
150 
170 
200 
230 
270 
310 
350 
400 
450 
500 
560 
610 
670 
740 


170 
200 
230 
270 
310 
360 
410 
460 
510 
570 
640 
710 
780 
870 



136 The New York State College of Forestry 



TABLE 15 
Volume Table — Beech 



Waha and Cheever, 1903 



New York: Based on 485 trees 



Merchantable Volume in Standard Railroad Ties 




Dana, 1907. 



TABLE 16 
Volume Table — Paper Birch 

Maine-New Hampshire: Based on 445 trees 







Merchantable Volume i> 


Cubic Feet 




D.B.H. ob 

in 
inches 




TOTAL HEIGHT OF TREI 


in feet 




50 


60 


70 


SO 


90 


6 


5.2 
6.8 
8.9 
11.2 
14.0 
17.2 
20.0 


5.9 
7.8 
10.2 
12.8 
15.9 
19.5 
23.4 
28.0 
33.0 
38.9 


6.7 
9.9 
11.5 
14.5 
18.0 
21.8 
26.3 
31.5 
37.3 
44.0 
51.0 


7.8 
10 . 4 
13 . 3 
16.5 
20.4 
24.6 
29.5 
35.3 
42.1 
49.7 
57.5 




7 


12.2 


S 


15.3 


9 


18 8 


10 


22.8 


11 


27.5 


12 


33.0 


13 


39.6 


14 


47 4 


15 


55 8 


16 


60.0 







Forestry for the Private Owner 



137 



TABLE 17 
Volume Table — Papek Birch 

Maine-New Hampshire: Based on 445 trees 





Merchantable Volume in Board Feet* 


D.B.H. ob in inches 


TOTAL HEIGHT OF TREE IN FEET 




40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


6 


18 

24 
32 
40 

50 
64 

7S 


22 
28 
38 
48 
60 
73 
88 
106 
126 


26 
34 

45 

57 

72 

88 

106 

127 

150 

177 

206 


30 
40 
52 
67 

85 
104 
124 
148 
176 
207 
242 
280 
320 


35 

46 

60 

76 

95 

117 

141 

169 

201 

236 

276 

320 

366 




7 


52 
68 
86 
108 
132 
160 
191 
226 
266 


8 


9 


10 

11 


12 

13 

14 

15 


16 


310 


17 


360 


18 


412 



* Converted from the original, Table 16, in cubic feet. 

TABLE 18 

Volume Table — Yellow Birch 

H. C. Belyea, 1919. St. Lawrence Co., N. Y. : Based on 351 trees 



Merchantable Volume in Board Feet ■ — Scribner Rule 



D.B.H. ob in inches 



10 
11 
12 
1.3 

14 
15 

16 
17 
18 

19 
20 
21 

22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 



32 

36 

41 

47 

54 

61 

68 

76 

84 

93 

102 

112 

123 

135 

148 

162 

177 

193 

210 

229 

250 



NUMBER OF 16-FOOT LOGS 



1% 



43 

48 

53 

60 

67 

75 

84 

95 

108 

121 

136 

150 

169 

186 

206 

223 

243 

264 

286 

310 

336 



55 
60 
66 
75 

86 
97 
107 
123 
139 
157 
177 
198 
222 
245 
271 
296 
324 
351 
382 
420 
•152 



2% 



72 
80 
95 
106 
122 
140 
158 
175 
200 
224 
254 
285 
317 
350 
385 
418 
452 
500 
549 
598 



3 


3% 


145 


168 


166 


198 


193 


229 


217 


262 


246 


300 


281 


345 


317 


392 


357 


445 


400 


496 


441 


550 


495 


621 


538 


678 


590 


750 


645 


830 


710 


920 


775 


1050 



138 The Neiv York State College of Forestry 



TABLE 19 
Volume Table — Yellow Birch 



Walia and Cheever, 1903 



New York: Based on 941 trees 



Merchantable Volume in Standard Railroad Ties 



D.B.H. ob inches 


Number of 

standard ties, 

7" x 9" x 8' 


D.B.H. ob inches 


Number of 

standard ties, 

7" x 9" x 8' 


12 


1 
1 
2 
2 
3 
3 
4 
4 
5 
5 


99 


6 


13 


23 


6 


14 


24 


7 


15 


25 


7 


16 


26 


8 


17 


27 


8 


18 


28 


9 


19 


29 


9 


20 


30 


9 


21 











Chapman, 1912. 



TABLE 20 
Volume Table — Chestnut 

Pike Co., Pa.: Based on 222 trees 





Merchantable 


Volume of the Trees in Cubic Feet 


D.B.H. ob 
in 


TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OF THE TREE IN FEET 




30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


3 


0.8 


1.7 
2.4 
3.1 

3.8 
4.8 
6.0 
7.6 , 
9.6 


*4;<3 

5.4 

6.5 

7. 7 

9.5 

12.2 

15.2 

18.6 

23.1 

27.9 


i2i6 
15.0 
18.4 
22.0 
26.6 
30.8 
35.3 
40.0 
44.7 
50.4 
56.9 
63.4 




4 


1. 

•> 

3! 


4 
2 

2 






5 




6 








8 




9 




10 




11 




12 

13 










14 




15 




16 




17 




18 




19 








1 















Forestry for the Private Oivner 



139 



TABLE 21 
Volume Table — Chestnut 

Pike Co., Pa.: Based on 222 trees 





MERCHANTABLE VOLUME IN BOARD FEET* 


D.B.H. ob in inches 


TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OP THE TREE IN FEET 




20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


6 


10 


15 

19 
25 
34 

45 


IS 
24 
32 
42 
54 
70 


26 

33 

41 

52 

70 

88 

110 

139 

168 

200 

230 


57 
69 
85 
107 
133 
160 
186 
215 
246 
277 
314 
356 
400 








8 




9 




10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 


155 
176 

200 
230 
260 
300 


18 • 


340 


19 

20 


385 
440 



* Converted to board foot values and extended from the original, Table 20, in 
cubic feet. 



Boisen, 1910. 



TABLE 22 

Volume Table — Hickory 

Eastern States: Based on 365 trees 





Merchantable Volume in Cubic Feet 


D.B.H. ob in inches 


TOTAL HEIGHT OP THE TREE IN FEET 




40 


50 


60 

2.4 
3.2 


70 


SO 


90 


6 


1.3 

1.9 


1.8 
2.5 


3.1 

4.0 


5.1 




7 




S 


2.6 


3.4 


4.2 


5.3 


6.5 


8.0 


9 


3.6 


4.6 


5.8 


7.0 


8.4 


10.2 


10 


4.8 


6.1 


7.4 


8.9 


10.7 


12.5 


11 


6.3 


7.8 


9.4 


11.3 


13.2 


15.5 


12 


7.S 


9.5 


11.6 


13.7 


15.9 


18.4 


13 




11.7 


14.2 


16.7 


19.4 


22.3 


14 






17.0 


19.7 


22.8 


26.1 


15 






19.5 


22.6 
26.1 


26.1 
30.0 


29.5 


16 




33.9 


17 








29.4 


33.9 


38.2 


IS 








32. S 


37.6 


42.5 



140 The New York State College of Forestry 



TABLE 23 
Volume Table — Hickoey 

Eastern States: Based on 365 trees 





Merchantable Volume in Board Feet* 


D.B.H. ob in inches 


TOTAL HEIGHT OF THE TREE IN FEET 




40 

6 

9 

13 

19 
27 
36 
46 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


6 

7 

8 

9 


9 

13 
18 
25 
34 
45 
56 
70 


12 
16 
22 
32 
42 
54 
68 
85 
103 
119 


15 

20 

28 

38 

50 

65 

81 

100 

119 

138 

161 

184 

206 


26 

34 

46 

60 

76 

94 

116 

138 

159 

184 

208 

234 


42 
55 


10 


71 


11 


90 


12 


108 


13 


132 


14 


158 


15 


180 


16 

17 


208 
236 


18 


265 







Converted from the original, Table 22, in cubic feet. 



TABLE 24 
Volume Table — Sugar Maple 



Frothingham, 1915 



Lake States: Based on 27S trees 





Merchantable Volume 


in Board 


Feet — Scribner Rule 


D.B.H. ob 












in 
inches 




NUMBER 


OF 16-FOOT LOGS 






















1 


1% 


2 


2% 
38 


3 


3% 


4 


8 


20 


25 


31 








9 


23 


30 


40 


50 








10 


28 


37 


47 


62 


76 


94 




11 


34 


43 


59 


76 


93 


110 




12 


40 


50 


70 


91 


110 


135 


170 


13 




57 


82 


110 


130 


160 


190 


14 




65 


95 


130 


155 


190 


220 


15 




73 


110 


150 


180 


220 


250 


16 




83 


120 


170 


210 


250 


290 


17 




93 


140 


190 


240 


280 


330 


18 




100 


160 


220 


270 


320 


380 


19 






180 


240 


300 


370 


430 


20 






200 


270 


340 


410 


490 


21 






220 


300 


380 


460 


550 


22 






250 


340 


420 


520 


620 


23 








370 


470 


580 


690 


24 








410 


520 


640 


770 


25 








460 


570 


710 


840 


26 








500 


630 


780 


930 



Forestry for the Private Otvner 



141 



TABLE 25 
Volume Table — Sugar Maple 



Waha and Cheever, 1903 



New York: Based on 296 trees 



Merchantable Volume in Standard Railroad Ties 



D.B.H. ob inches 


Number of 

standard ties, 

7" x 9" x 8' 


D.B.H. ob inches 


Number of 

standard ties, 

7" x 9" x 8' 


12 


2 
2 
2 
3 
3 
3 
4 
5 


20 


5 


13 


21 


6 


14 


22 


6 


15 


23 


6 


16 


24 


7 


17 


25 


8 


18 


26 


10 


19 











Volume Table 



TABLE 26 
Red, Black and Scarlet Oaks 



Peters, 1905. 



Connecticut and New York: Based on 441 trees 













Volume 


IN BOARD 


Feet* 






D.B.H. ob 
in 


TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OP THE TREE IN FEET 


inches 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 




r 


r 


20 
29 
39 
51 
63 
77 


24 

34 

46 

61 

77 

96 

114 

134 

156 


29 

39 

54 

74 

93 

115 

136 

161 

187 

216 

249 

285 

325 

369 

417 


45 
65 
88 
110 
134 
166 
189 
219 
254 
292 
335 
3(80 
429 
481 


104 
127 
155 
185 
218 
252 
294 
338 
386 
436 
491 
547 


247 
285 
335 
385 
438 
493 
555 
614 



* Converted to board foot values from the original table in cubic feet. 



142 The New York State College of Forestry 

TABLE 27 

Volume Table — White and Chestnut Oaks 

Peters, 1905. Connecticut and New York: Based on 293 trees 







Volume in Board Feet* 




D.B.H. ob in inches 


TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OF THE TREE IN FEET . 




40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


6 


20 


24 


29 










29 

39 
51 
63 


34 
46 
61 

77 


39 
55 
73 
93 


45 

65 

88 

110 


104 
131 




8 




9 ■. 




10 




11 


77 


96 


115 


135 


156 




12 


93 


114 


136 


161 


185 




13 




134 


161 


189 


217 




14 




157 


188 


218 


256 




15 






217 


255 


292 




16 






249 


294 


331 


381 


17 






285 
325 


327 
371 


374 
419 


423 


IS 


469 


19 






365 


417 


465 


525 


20 






415 


463 


520 


591 







* Converted to board foot values from the original table in cubic feet. 

TABLE 28 

Cordwood Volume Table fob Second Growth White Oak 

Peters, 1905. New York : Based on 349 trees 









Cordwood Volume 


IN C 


dbic Feet* 




D.B.H. ob 
in 




TOTAL HEIGHT 


CLASS OF THE TREE IN FEET 


inches 


20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


9 




0.2 
0.5 
0.9 


0.5 
0.8 
1.4 
2.3 
3.4 
4.8 


'i'.i 

1.8 
2.7 

4.0 
5.7 

7.7 


3.2 

4.S 
6.6 
9.0 
11. S 
15.3 
19.6 
24.6 




3 




4 




5.. . 




6 


5.7 


7 


7.9 


8 






10.6 


9 

10 












13.6 
17.3 


11... 


22.6 


12 


28.0 


13 

14 


32.2 
37.2 


15 


42.0 



* These volumes include all of the tree that can be utilized for cordwood down 
to a diameter of one inch. A cord made up of mixed diameters, is considered to 
contain 80 cubic feet of solid wood, and the values from this table can be directly 
converted to cords by dividing by 80. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 



143 



TABLE 29 

Volume Table — Balsam Fir 
Zon, 1914. 

U. S. Forest Service Bulletin No. 55. 



New York: Based on 947 trees 



D.B.H. ob 

in 
inches 



6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

1G 



40 



Merchantable Volume in Cubic Feet 



HEIGHT OF TREE IN FEET 



50 



4.0 
5.1 
6.8 
8.9 
11.2 
13.6 



60 



5.9 
8.0 
10.4 
13.0 
15.6 
18.3 
21.1 



70 



9.1 
11.9 
14.8 
17.6 
20.9 
24.5 
28.4 
32.9 
37.8 



80 



16.6 
19.8 
23.6 
27.7 
32.2 
37.5 
43.2 



TABLE 30 

Volume Table — Balsam Fir 



Zon, 1914 (curved), 



New York: Based on 947 trees 



n 


lERCHANTABLE VOLUME IN BOARD FEET HOLLAND 


Rule* 


D.B.H. ob 
in 


HEIGHT OF TREE IN FEET 




40 


50 


60 


70 


SO 


6 


10 

13 
19 
25 


12 
15 
22 
29 
37 
46 


"it 

26 
34 
43 
52 
61 
71 


"29 
39 
49 

60 
71 
82 
99 
120 
132 




7 




8 




9 




10 


55 


11 






64 


12 


81 


13. . . 


94 


14 


115 


15 


131 


16 


151 











* Table obtained by converting cubic foot volumes to board feet, by use of con- 
verting factors offered by Zon, U. S. Forest Service Bulletin No. 55, page 55. 



144 The New York State College of Forestry 



TABLE 31 
Number of Trees per Cord 
Zon, 1914. 
U. S. Forest Service Bulletin No. 55. 



Balsam Fir 

Maine and New York: 
Based on 2171 trees 





Number op Trees per Cord 


D.B.H. ob 










in 






HEIGHT OF TREE IN PEET 




inches 












20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


3 


200 
111.1 
62.5 


125 
62.5 

41.7 
29.4 


45.5 
30.3 

22.2 


23.8 
17.5 


14.7 








4 




5 












22.2 


16.7 


13.3 


11.2 


9.5 






8 






12.8 


10.4 


8.8 


7.3 


6.0 




9 






10.1 


8.4 


7.0 


5.8 


4.9 




10 






8.3 


6.4 


5.8 


4.9 


4.2 










6.8 


5.6 


4.9 


4.1 


3.6 












4.7 


4.1 


3.6 


3.1 




13 










3.5 


3.1 


2.7 




14 












2.7 


2.4 
















2.4 


2.2 





TABLE 32 
Volume Table — -Hemlock 
Frothingham, 1915. 
U. S. Forest Service Bulletin No. 152. Lake States: Based on 534 trees 





Volume in Board Feet ■ — Scribner Rule 


D.B.H. ob 

in 

incbes 


HEIGHT OP TREE IN FEET 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 




1 

14 
22 
2£ 
37 
4€ 
56 
6E 
7f 




13 

22 

32 

41 

53 

65 

77 

90 

110 

120 

140 

160 

180 

200 

220 


20 

29 

40 

52 

64 

78 

95 

110 

130 

150 

180 

200 

230 

260 

290 

330 

360 

390 

430 

470 

500 

540 

570 


25 

35 

47 

60 

76 

94 

110 

130 

160 

180 

210 

240 

280 

310 

350 

380 

420 

460 

510 

550 

590 

640 

680 


30 
40 
52 
67 
84 
100 
130 
150 
180 
210 
240 
280 
310 
350 
390 
440 
490 
530 
580 
640 
690 
750 
800 


75 
93 
110 
140 
160 
190 
220 
260 
300 
340 
380 
430 
480 
540 
600 
660 
720 
780 
850 
920 


240 
280 
320 
360 
410 
470 
520 
580 
650 
720 
790 
870 
940 
1030 



Forestry for the Private Owner 



145 



H. C. Belyea, 1919. 



TABLE 33 

Volume Table — Hemlock 

St. Lawrence Co., New York: Based on 950 trees 




146 The New York State College of Forestry 

TABLE 34 

Volume Table — Hemlock Bark 

Frothingham, 1915. Vermont, Appalachian Region: 

U. S. Forest Service Bulletin No. 152. Based on 682 trees 





D.B.H. ob in 


inches 


Volume of 


Bark in Cords 




Volume of bark 


Volume of bark 

per 1000 b. f.— 

Scribner 


10 


0.06 
0.07 
0.08 
0.09 
'0.10 
0.12 
0.14 
0.16 
0.18 
0.20 
0.22 
0.25 
0.28 
0.31 
0.34 
0.37 
0.40 
0.42 
0.44 
0.47 
0.50 


3 5 


11 


2 9 


12 


2 8 


13 


2 3 


14 


1.9 


15 


1 6 


16 


1 3 


17 


1 2 


18 


1 i 


19 


1.0 


20 


9 


21 


8 


22 


8 


23 


0.7 


24 


0.7 


25 


0.6 


26 


0.6 


27 


0.5 


28 


0.5 


29 


0.5 


30 


0.4 







TABLE 35 

Volume Table — Bed Spruce 

H. C. Belyea, 1918. St. Lawrence Co., New York: Based on 1260 trees 





Merchantable Volume in Cubic Feet 


D.B.H. ob in inches 


TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OF THE TREE IN FEET 




50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


8 


6.5 

8.0 

11.0 

14.5 

18.0 


8.0 
11.0 
14.0 
18.0 
22.0 
26.0 
29.5 
32.5 
36.0 
39.0 


11.0 

14.0 
17.5 
22.0 
27.0 
31.5 
36.0 
40.0 
44.0 
48.0 
52.0 
56.0 
60.0 


14.0 

17.5 
22.5 
28.0 
33.5 
38.5 
43.5 
48.5 
53.5 . 
58.5 
64.0 
69.0 
74.0 
79.0 
84.5 
90.0 
97.0 
103.0 


58.0 

63.0 

68.5 

73 . 

78.0 

83.0 

89.0 

95.0 

102.0 

109.0 

116.0 




9 




jO 

11 

12 




13 




14 




15 




16 




17 




18 




19 

20 


90.0 
96.0 


21 


102.5 


22 


109.0 


23 


116.0 


24 . . 


123.5 


25 


132.0 







Forestry for the Private Oivner 



117 



TABLE 36 

Volume Table — Red Speuce 

H. C. Belyea, 1918. St. Lawrence Co., New York: Based on 1260 trees 







Merchantable Volume in 


Cords* 






D.B.H. ob in inches 


TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OF THE TREE IN FEET 




50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


S 


0.03 
O.OS 
0.12 
0.16 
0.20 


0.05 
0.11 
0.16 
0.20 
0.25 
0.29 
0.33 
0.36 
0.40 
0.43 


0.07 
0.13 
0.19 
0.25 
0.30 
0.35 
0.40 
0.45 
0.49 
0.53 
0.58 
0.62 
0.67 


0.13 

0.19 

0.25 

0.31 

0.37 

0.43 ' 

0.49 

0.54 

0.59 

0.65 

0.71 

0.77 

0.82 

0.88 

0.95 

1.00 

1.08 

1.14 


0.64 
0.70 
0.76 
0.81 
0.86 
0.92 
0.99 
1.05 
1.13 
1.21 
1.28 




9 


'i 
l 

l 
l 
l 
l 
i 




10 




11 




12 




13 




14 

15 




16 




17 




18 




19 

20 

21 

22 


00 
07 
14 
21 


23 


29 


24 


37 


25 


47 









* Converted from original table in cubic feet on the basis that 90 cubic feet 
(solid) equals one cord. 



Murphy, 1917. 



TABLE 37 
Volume Table — Red Spruce 

New York: Based on 1507 trees 





Merchantable Volume in Board Feet — Scribner Rule 


D.B.H. ob in inches 


TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OF THE TREE IN FEET 




50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


8 


34 

43 

55 

68 

82 

97 

110 

120 

140 

160 

180 


41 

53 

67 

82 

97 

120 

135 

150 

170 

190 

220 

250 

270 

300 

320 


48 
67 
78 
96 
110 
130 
160 
180 
200 
230 
260 
290 
320 
360 
400 
440 
490 
540 


75 
90 
110 
130 
160 
180 
210 
240 
270 
300 
340 
380 
420 
470 
530 
580 
640 


100 
130 
150 
180 
200 
230 
270 
300 
340 
380 
430 
480 
540 
600 
670 
740 




9 




,10 




11 


140 


12 


170 


13 


200 


14 


230 


15 


260 


16 


300 


17 


340 


18 

19 


380 
430 


20 


480 


21 


540 


22 


600 


23 

24 


670 
750 


25 


840 







148 The New York State College of Forestry 



Murphy, 1917. 



TABLE 38 

Volume Table — Red Spkuce 

New York: Based on 1507 trees 





Merchantable Volume in Board Feet 


— Scribner Rule 


D.B.H. ob 
in 


NUMBER OF 16-FOOT LOGS 




1 


iy 2 


2 


2% 


3 


3% 


4 


4V2 


5 


8 


19 
24 
30 
36 

42 


32 
36 
41 
47 
54 
60 
67 
75 


43 

49 

56 

65 

74 

84 

95 

110 

120 

130 

140 


56 

64 

72 

81 

91 

100 

120 

130 

150 

160 

180 

200 

210 


"73 

85 
98 
110 
130 
140 
160 
180 
200 
220 
240 
260 
290 
320 
. 350 
380 
410 


'ioo 
120 

130 
150 
170 
190 
210 
230 
260 
290 
320 
350 
380 
410 
450 
480 


'i.60 
180 
200 
220 
250 
270 
300 
340 
370 
410 
450 
490 
530 
580 


"230 
260 
290 
320 
350 
390 
430 
470 
520 
570 
620 
680 




9 




10 




11 




12 




13 




14 






15 






16 






17 










18 




410 


19 




450 


20 




500 


21 




550 


22 




600 


23 




660 


24 




730 


25 




800 









Murphy, 1917. 



TABLE 39 
Volume Table — Red Spkuce 

New York: Based on 1507 trees 





Merchantable Volume in Standards 


— DlMICK 


's Rule* 


D.B.H. ob in inches 


TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OF THE TREE IN FEET 




50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


8 


0-20 
0.20 
0.37 
0.44 
0.52 
0.60 
0.69 
0.77 
0.86 
0.95 
1.05 


0.27 
0.36 
0.44 
0.54 
0.64 
0.74 
0.84 
0.94 
1.06 
1.18 
1.31 
1.43 
1.55 
1.69 
1.83 


0.32 
0.41 
0.50 
0.62 
0.74 
0.86 
0.99 
1.12 
1.26 
1.40 
1.57 
1.73 
1.90 
2.08 
2.27 
2.47 
2.66 
2.85 


0.56 
0.70 
0.83 
0.97 
1.12 
1.28 
1.44 
1.62 
1.80 
2.00 
2.22 
2.44 
2.67 
2.90 
3.14 
3.39 


0.92 
1.07 
1.24 
1.42 
1.61 
1.81 
2.03 
2.26 
2.51 
2.77 
3.04 
2.32 
3.61 
3.92 




9 




10 




11 




12 




13 




14 


1.36 


15 


1.55 


16 


1.76 


17 


1.99 


18 


2.23 


19 


2.49 


20 


2.78 


21 


3.08 


22 


3.39 


23 


3.72 


24 


4.06 


25 


4.42 







* A Dimick Standard is equal to the volume of a log thirteen feet long and 
nineteen inches in diameter inside the bark at the small end. 



Forestry for the Private Owner 



149 



Murphy, 1917. 



TABLE 40 
Volume Table — Red Spruce 

New York: Based on 1507 trees 



D.B.H. ob 

in 

inches 



8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 



Merchantable Volume in Standards — Dimick's Rule* 



0.14 
0.16 
0.19 
0.22 
0.26 



NUMBER OF 16-FOOT LOGS 





1% 






2 


2y 3 


3 


3y 3 


4 


4% 


0.22 


0.2! 


) 0.37 










0.24 


0.3: 


5 0.42 


0.47 








0.28 


0.3f 


I 0.47 


0.55 


0.66 






0.32 


0.4: 


$ 0.53 


0.63 


0.75 






0.36 


0.4? 


I 0.60 


0.72 


0.85 


0.98 




0.41 


0.5: 


? 0.66 


0.80 


0.95 


1.10 




0.46 


0.5J 


i 0.73 


0.89 


1.06 


1.23 


1.41 


0.51 


0.6J 


5 0.81 


0.98 


1.17 


1.36 


1.56 




0.7" 


0.89 


1.08 


1.29 


1.50 


1.71 








().7 r 


r 0.97 


1.18 


1.41 


1.64 


1.81 








0.8.' 


$ 1.05 


1.29 


1.54 


1.80 


2.07 










1.14 


1.40 


1.68 


1.96 


2.17 












1.22 

1 ■'"' 


1.51 
1.64 

1.77 
1.92 
2.07 

2.22 


1.82 
1.98 
2.14 
2.32 
2.51 
2.70 


2.14 
2.33 
2.53 
2.74 
2.96 
3.19 


2.48 
2.69 
2.92 
3.16 
3.41 
3.68 



2.39 
2.59 
2.81 
3.05 
3.31 
3.60 
3.90 
4.20 



* A Dimick Standard is equal to the volume of a log thirteen feet long and 
nineteen inches in diameter inside the bark at the small end of the log. 



Woolsey, 1905. 



TABLE 41 
Volume Table — Red Pine 

Minnesota: Based on 964 trees 





Merchantable Volume in Board Feet — Scribner Rule 


D.B.H. ob in inches 


TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OF THE TREE IN FEET 




50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


10 


55 
62 
76 
90 
106 
123 


70 
82 
98 
112 
132 
153 
176 
202 
229 


85 
102 
122 
144 
168 
193 
220 
250 
282 
317 
355 
396 


105 
126 
150 
178 
208 
240 
275 
311 
349 
390 
433 
480 
530 
584 


147 
177 
210 
246 
284 
323 
370 
417 
468 
523 
582 
646 
715 
790 
867 
951 
1041 




11 




12 




13 




14 




15 




16 


383 


17 


435 


18 


490 


19 


551 


20 


616 


21 


685 


22 


755 


23 


830 


24 


905 


25 


986 


26 


1075 


27 


1166 







150 The New York State College of Forestry 



TABLE 42 
Volume Table — Virgin Growth White Pine 
New York Conservation Commission. New York 



State 







Merchantable Volume in 


Board Feet 




D.B.H. ob 










in 




TOTAL HEIGHT OF TREES 


IN FEET 




inches 












. 40 


45 


50 


55 


60 


65 


70 


75 


8 


20 
28 
34 
41 
50 
58 
66 
74 
83 
93 
100 


23 
31 
39 
47 
58 
68 
79 
92 

106 
•121 

130 


27 

35 

44 

54 

66 

79 

93 

110 

130 

150 

160 

180 


30 
39 
49 
61 

74 
88 
106 
125 
145 
165 
180 
205 


34 

43 

54 

68 

82 

98 

120 

140 

160 

180 

200 

230 


40 

50 

62 

78 

91 

109 

130 

150 

175 

195 

220 

250 


46 

58 

71 

88 

100 

120 

140 

160 

190 

210 

240 

270 


49 


9 


63 


10., 


77 


11 


94 


12 


110 


13 


130 


14 


155 


15 


175 


16 


205 


17 


230 


IS 


260 




290 


20 






210 


235 


260 


280 


300 


325 


21 










290 


310 


330 


360 


22 










320 


340 


360 


395 












350 


375 


400 


435 


24 










380 


405 


430 


470 


25 














470 


510 


26 














510 


556 


27 














550 


600 


28 














590 


645 


29 














630 


690 


30 














670 


740 


31 


















32 


















33 


















34 


















35 


















36 


















37 


















38 


















39.. 


















40 


















41 


















42 



















Forestry for the Private Owner 

TABLE 42 — {Continued) 



151 







Merchantable 


Volume 


in Board Feet 




D.B.H. ob in inches 


TOTAL HEIGHT OF TREES IN FEET 




80 


85 


90 


95 


100 


105 


110 




53 
68 


56 

72 


60 

77 










9 




10 


83 


89 


96 


103 


110 






11 


100 


110 


120 


125 


130 






12 


120 


130 


140 


150 


160 


170 


180 


13 


140 


155 


170 


180 


190 


200 


210 


14 


170 


185 


200 


210 


220 


230 


240 


15 


190 


210 


230 


240 


250 


265 


280 


16 


220 


240 


260 


270 


280 


300 


320 


17 


250 


270 


290 


305 


320 


340 


360 


18 


280 


300 


320 


340 


360 


380 


400 


19 


310 


335 


360 


380 


400 


425 


450 


20 


350 


375 


400 


425 


450 


475 


500 


21 


390 


415 


440 


465 


490 


520 


550 


22 


430 


445 


480 


510 


540 


575 


610 


23 


470 
510 


500 
545 


530 

580 


565 
620 


600 
660 


635 

700 


670 


24 


740 


25 


550 


595 


640 


680 


720 


760 


800 


26 


600 


645 


690 


735 


780 


830 


880 


27 


650 


700 


750 


800 


850 


900 


950 


28 


700 


755 


810 


865 


920 


975 


1030 


29 


750 


810 


870 


930 


990 


1055 


1120 


30 


810 


875 


940 


1005 


1070 


1135 


1200 


31 


870 


940 


1010 


1080 


1150 


1220 


1290 


32 


930 


990 


1090 


1165 


1240 


1315 


1390 


33 


1000 
1070 


1085 
1165 


1170 
1260 


1250 
1340 


1330 
1420 


1410 
1505 


1490 


34 


1590 


35 


1140 


1245 


1350 


1435 


1520 


1610 


1700 


36 


1220 


1330 


1440 


1530 


1620 


1720 


1820 


37 






1530 


1630 


1730 


1830 


1930 


38 






1630 
1730 
1830 


1730 
1835 
1940 


1830 
1940 
2050 


1940 
2055 
2170 


2030 


39 


2170 


40 '. 


2290 


41 






1920 
2020 


2040 
2150 


2160 

2280 


2290 
2415 


2420 


42 


2550 







152 The New York State College of Forestry 



TABLE 43 

Converting Factors for Standing Trees* 

Cubic Measure to Board Measuref 

(Values curved) 



D.B.H. ob 

in 
inches 


One cubic foot is equiva- 
lent to : 


D.B.H. ob 

in 

inches 


One cubic foot is equiva- 
lent to : 


6 


4.50 board feet 
5.00 board feet 
5.25 board feet 
5.50 board feet 
5.60 board feet 
5.70 board feet 
5.80 board feet 
5.90 board feet 
6.00 board feet 
6.10 board feet 
6.15 board feet 


17 


6.20 board feet 


7 


18 


6.25 board feet 


8 


19 


6.30 board feet 


9 


20 


6.35 board feet 


10 


21.. . 


6.40 board feet 


11 


25 


6.45 board feet 


12 


26 

27 


6 50 board feet 


13 


6 . 55 board feet 


14 


28 


6.60 board feet 


15 


29 


6.65 board feet 


16 


30 









* Frothingham, U. S. Dept. Agriculture Bulletin 152. 

t These values were used in these tables converting from cubic feet to board 
feet. 



LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL USES OF NEW YORK 
SPECIES ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY 

[153] 



WOOD USED BY SPECIES 





APPLEWOOD 


Canes 


Umbrella handles 


Handles 


Vehicles 


Planes 


Whips 


Rules 


Tobacco pipes 


Saw handles 




ARBORVITAE '(Northern White Cedar) 


Boat bottoms 


Shiplap 


Boat decking 


Siding 


Dairymen's supplies 


Signal devices 


Ice cream freezers 


Silos 


Interior finish 


Tanks 


Roof tanks 


Yachts 


Row boats 






ASH 


Aeroplanes 


Keyboards 


Axles 


Ladders ( rounds ) 


Baseball bats 


Machinery (frames) 


Baskets 


Machinery (rods) 


Billiard rails 


Mouldings 


Boats 


Neck yokes 


Bolsters 


Novelties 


Boxes 


Organs (frames) 


Bread slicing machines 


Panels 


Brick moulds 


Piano tops 


Broom handles 


Pickets 


Butter packages 


Pick handles 


Butter tubs 


Plow beams 


Cabinets 


Plow handles 


Car construction 


Plugs (for paper) 


Casing 


Poles (vehicles) 


Chairs 


Porch swings 


Cheese boxes 


Pump rods 


Crates 


Refrigerators 


Cultivators 


Rings 


Desks 


Rollers (farm machinery) 


Drafting tables 


Sash 


Fence 


Seeder thills 


Finish 


Ships 


Fixtures (store, office) 


Siding 


Flooring 


Signaling devices 


Fork handles 


Single trees 


Furniture 


Sleds (hand) 


Hames 


Snow shovel handles 


Handles (toy shovel) 


Sofas 


Hayracks 


Souvenirs 


Hoe handles 


Tables 


Hoops 


Tackleblock shells 


Ice boxes 


Threshers 



[155] 



156 The New York State College of Forestry 



ASH — (Continued) 



Toilet tanks 


Wagon poles 


Toilet seats 


Wagon (coasters) 


Tongues 


Wash trays (frames) 


Trunk slats 


Wash tubs (frames) 


Trunk strips 


Whiffletrees 


Turnery 


Window frames 


Vestibules ( ears ) 






ASPEN 


Boxes 


Packing cases 


Cheese boxes (heading) 


Sheathing 


Crates 


Pulp 


Excelsior 






BALSAM FIR 


Boxes 


Millwork 


Cheese boxes (heads) 


Sash 


Crates 


Trim 


Dairy supplies 


Wood pulp 


Doors 






BASSWOOD 


Agricultural implements 


Drills 


Automobiles (parts) 


Dumbwaiters 


Bank fixtures 


Elevators 


Baskets 


Engraving boards 


Beehives 


Excelsior 


Berry baskets 


Feeders 


Billiard table beds 


Filing cabinets 


Boats 


Flooring 


Boxes 


Furniture 


Bread boards 


Go-carts 


Brooms 


Graders (peach) 


Brushes 


Grain hoppers 


Business wagon bodies 


Grass seeders 


Butter ladles 


Guitars 


Cameras 


Hand sled tops 


Candy buckets 


Hayracks 


Cars 


Hobby horses 


Casing 


Incubators 


Caskets 


Indian clubs 


Ceiling 


Ironing boards 


Chairs 


• Kitchen cabinets 


Checkers 


Kitchen tables 


Cheese box heading 


Lard tubs 


Children's blackboards 


Lawn furniture 


Children's sled tops 


Mandolins 


Cigar boxes 


Medicine cases 


Clocks 


Moulding 


Clothes baskets 


Music cabinets 


Clothes pins 


Novelties 


Corn planters 


Packing boxes 


Crates 


Pails 


Curtain stretchers 


Panels 


Doubletrees 


Pastry boards 


Dowels 


Patterns 


Drawer bottoms 


Pencils 



Forestry for the Private Owner 



157 



Pianos 

Piano players 

Picture frames 

Printers' cabinets 

Eefrigerators 

Rulers 

Scientific instruments 

Seed cabinets 

Shoe trees 

Shoe lasts 

Shop patterns 

Show cases 

Shredders 

Siding 

Silos 

Singletrees 

Skids 

Sleeve boards 

Sleigh bodies 

Spools 

Stackers 



Agricultural implements 

Auto-seat frames 

Bobbins 

Boxes 

Brick molds 

Broom handles 

Brushes 

Built-up panels 

Burther blocks 

Butter dishes 

Butter tubs 

Cable reels 

Cars 

Chairs 

Chair bottoms 

Chair rods 

Cheese boxes 

Clocks 

Clothes pins 

Coat hangers 

Coops 

Crating 

Dowels 

Drafting tables 

Electrotype plates 

Farm machinery 

Filing cabinets 

Fixtures 

Furniture 

Grain doors 

Hames 

Handles 

Hand sleds 



BASS WOOD— {Continued) 



Stanchions 

Store fixtures 

Threshing machines 

Tool boxes 

Toys 

Trays (egg) 

Trunks 

Tubs 

Turnery 

Velocipede seats 

Wagons 

Wagon boxes 

Wardrobes 

Washboards 

Washing machines 

Well buckets 

Wheelbarrows 

Window frames 

Woodenware 

Yardsticks 



BEECH 



Ironing boards 

Ladders 

Lawn swings 

Musical instruments 

Novelties 

Pails 

Panels 

Pianos 

Pipe organs 

Printers' cabinets 

Pulleys 

Pump handles 

Pump buckets 

Refrigerators 

Rope reels 

Sash 

Sectional bookcases 

Show cases 

Skates 

Sounding boards 

Stanchions 

Stepladders 

Tables 

Tie plugs 

Trunks 

Tubs 

Wardrobes 

Washing machines 

Washboards 

Weighing machines 

Wheelbarrows 

Window screens 

Woodenware 



158 The New York State College of Forestry 



BIRCH 



Agricultural implements 

Baskets 

Boat finish 

Bobbins 

Bookcases 

Boxes 

Broom bandies 

Broom heads 

Brush backs 

Built-up panels 

Buffets 

Butter boxes 

Butter molds 

Cabinets 

Cameras 

Canes 

Car finish (vestibules) 

Carvings 

Casing 

Ceiling 

Chair rods 

Cheese boxes (hoops) 

Clocks (turnery parts) 

Couch frames 

Crating 

Desks 

Dowels 

Dumbwaiter cars 

Electrotype bases 

Fixtures (exterior parts) 

Flooring 

Furniture 

Games 

Harvesters 

House trim (veneral) 

BLACK 

Baskets 

Beds 

Boat finish 

Bookcases 

Brushes 

Bushel crates 

Butter dishes 

Cabinets 

Camera boxes 

Card trays 

Cars (finish) 

Casing 

Caskets 

Chairs (posts, rounds) 

Clock cases 

Coffins 

Collar trays 

Counters 

Desks 



Interior finish 

Kodaks 

Lawn mowers 

Mantels 

Mirror backs 

Moulding 

Office fixtures 

Panels 

Paper plugs 

Parlor furniture 

Partitions 

Peavey handles 

Picture frames 

Plumbers' woodwork 

Pulleys 

Refrigerators 

Sash pins 

Screen frames 

Settees 

Shoe pegs 

Shoe trees 

Show cases 

Sofas 

Spool heads 

Swings 

Store fixtures 

Umbrella handles 

Tables 

Tackleblock shells 

Thresher parts 

Toys 

Tubs 

Wall fixtures 

Woodenware 



CHERRY 



Doors 

Dowels 

Dressers 

Flasks 

Flooring 

Electrotype blocks 

Engraving blocks 

Glove stretchers 

Handle ( brush ) 

Interior finish 

Kodaks 

Last blocks 

Level blocks 

Level sticks 

Library furniture 

Machine boxes 

Moulding 

Musical instruments 

Office fixtures 



Forestry for the Private 



wner 



159 



Panels 

Partitions 

Passenger cars 

Patterns 

Piano actions 

Piano cases 

Piano players 

Piano raiis 

Pipe organ (cases, actions) 

Road machines (cabs, boxes) 

Sash 

School furniture 

Settees 



BLACK CHEERY— (Continued) 



Shoe lasts 

Siding 

Spindle stock 

Spoons 

Store fixtures 

Swings 

Switchboards 

Tables 

Table drawers 

Table legs 

Trim 

Woodenware 



BLACK WALNUT 



Air-gun stock 

Benches 

Billiard cues 

Bookcases 

Brush backs 

Bureaus 

Cabinet work 

Canes 

Card tables 

Carpet sweepers 

Case work 

Caskets 

Chairs 

Chair legs 

China closets 

Chiffoniers 

Clock cases 

Coffins 

Couches (legs) 

Desks 

Doors 

Electrical appliances (bases,) 

Embalming boards 

Fixtures (exterior parts) 

Fixtures, office 



Agricultural implements 
Banana baskets 
Baskets (bottoms, covers) 
Boxes 

Bushel crates 
Chairs 

Cheese boxes (heads, hoops) 
Cigar boxes 
Cradle bows 

Crating (posts, corners) 
Couch frames 
Feed tables 
Fixtures 

Fruit cases (handles, hoops) 
Furniture (frames, drawer bot- 
toms, ends) 



ELM 



Fixtures, store 
Furniture 
Gunstocks 
Inlaid work 
Interior finish 
Machine boxes 
Moulding 
Novelties 
Organ cases 
Parquetry flooring 
Pianos 

Piano actions 
Piano benches 
Piano cases 
Piano players 
Picture frames 
Pipe organs 
Sideboards 
Side tables 
Stools 
Tool boxes 
Umbrella handles 
Vehicles 
Woodenware 



Grain drills 

Grape trays 

Handles 

Harvesters 

Hayracks 

Instruments, musical 

Laundry appliances 

Machine construction 

Mowers (poles) 

Planing mill products 

Reapers (poles) 

Refrigators 

Rockers 

Sash 

Ships 

Sporting goods 



160 The New York State College of Forestry 



ELM — {Continued) 



Toys 


Vehicle poles 


Trunks (slats) 


Whiffletrees 


Tubs 


Woodenware 




HEMLOCK 


Agricultural implements 


Flooring 


Baskets 


Furniture 


Blinds 


Gates ( picket ) 


Boxes 


Instruments, musical 


Cars 


Machines 


Construction 


Patterns 


Crates 


Sash 


Dairymen's supplies 


Ships 


Doors 


Sporting goods 


Fencing ( pickets ) 


Vehicles 


Flasks 


Wood pulp 




HICKORY 


Agricultural implements 


Mallets 


Automobile wheels 


Machines 


Baskets 


Neckyokes 


Boats 


Printing 


Buggy shafts 


Refrigerators 


Buggy spokes 


Rounds 


Canes 


Shoe shanks 


Car construction (grab handles) Singletrees 


Chairs (rounds) 


Spokes 


Doubletrees 


Sucker rods 


Eveners 


Trunks 


Gates (pickets) 


Vehicles 


Handles 


Wagon tongues . 


Instruments ( tripods ) 


Woodenware 


Ladders 






RED OAK 


Agricultural implements 


Moulding 


Boats 


Musical instruments 


Boxes 


Laundry appliances 


Car construction 


Machine construction 


Caskets 


Patterns 


Coffins 


Picture frames 


Clocks (cases) 


Plumbers' woodwork 


Crates 


Pumps (platforms) 


Elevators 


Refrigerators 


Interior finish 


Sash 


Fencing ( pickets ) 


Ships 


Fixtures 


Signs 


Flasks 


Scientific instruments 


Flooring 


Vehicles 


Furniture 


Woodenware 


Gates 






SASSAFRAS 


Novelties 


Souvenirs 


Rustic mementoes 


Woodenware 



Forestry for the Private Owner 



161 



SPRUCE 



Agricultural implements 

Aeroplanes 

Ballup sleepers 

Boats 

Boat oars 

Bowling alleys 

Boxes 

Bungs 

Cable reels and spools 

Cameras 

Car sheathing 

Crates 

Doors 

Elevator platforms 

Farm machinery 

Fiber board 

Fixtures, backing 

Fixtures, linings 

Fixtures, office 

Fixtures, store 

Flag poles 

Flooring 

Furniture ( hidden parts ) 

Guitars 

Hay presses 

Ice boxes 

Keyboards 

Kodaks 



Ladder sides 

Mandolins 

Match cases 

Mouldings 

Moulding flasks 

Musical instruments 

Novelties 

Organ pipes 

Patterns 

Piano backs 

Piano benches 

Piano cases 

Piano ribs 

Piano sounding boards 

Pipe organs 

Player actions 

Eefrigerators (inside partitions) 

Scaffolding 

Ships 

Shiplap 

Silos 

Skids 

Spars 

Tanks 

Vehicles 

Woodenware 

Wood pulp 



SUGAR (Hard) MAPLE 



Agricultural implements 

Balls 

Baseball bats 

Baskets 

Bedroom furniture 

Billiard cues 

Billiard tables 

Blueprint frames 

Boat finish 

Bobbins 

Bobsleds 

Bowling alleys 

Boxes 

Brewers' chips 

Broom handles 

Brush backs 

Brush handles 

Butcher blocks 

Butter ladles 

Butter moulds 

Cameras 

Canes 

Car finish 

Car flooring 

Carpet sweepers 

Castor rollers 

6 



Ceiling 

Chair bottoms 

Chair rods 

Checkers 

Children's wagons 

Clothespins 

Coat hangers 

Corn planters 

Corn shellers 

Cot frames 

Croquet balls 

Croquet mallets 

Cultivator handles 

Curtain poles 

Desks 

Dishes 

Doors 

Dowels 

Dominoes 

Drill frames 

Dumbwaiters 

Electrotype blocks 

Elevators 

Ensilage cutters 

Factory trucks 

Feeders 



162 The New York State College of Forestry 



SUGAR (Hard) MAPLE— (Continued) 


Fixtures 


Plumbers' woodwork 


Flasks 


Porch swings 


Folding camp chairs 


Potato mashers 


Flooring 


Pulleys 


Furniture 


Pumps 


Games 


Pump buckets 


Go-carts 


Racks 


Grain drills 


Refrigerators 


Grain separators 


Road rollers 


Grass seeder frames 


Rules 


Guitars 


Sash 


Hames 


Separators 


Handles 


Shade rollers 


Hay presses 


Shoe forms 


Indian clubs 


Show cases 


Interior finish 


Signs 


Kitchen cabinets 


Skids 


Kodaks 


Sleighs 


Ladders 


Spool barrels 


Lasts 


Spoons 


Lawn mowers . 


Steering wheels 


Mallets 


Tanks 


Mangle rollers 


Tanning drums 


Map rollers 


Talking machines 


Medicine cabinets 


Tenpins 


Merry-go-rounds 


Threshers 


Moulding 


Toys 


Musical instruments 


Towel racks 


Novelties 


Type cabinets 


Office fixtures 


Umbrella handles 


Organs 


Vehicles 


Paddles (boat) 


Wagons 


Parasol handles 


Washboards 


Partitions 


Washing machines 


Parquetry flooring 


Wash tray covers 


Patterns 


Wheelbarrows 


Pianos 


Woodenware 


Piano bridges 


Wood type 


Piano players 


Yardsticks 


Plow beams 






SYCAMORE 


Boxes 


Furniture 


Crates 


Planing mill products 


Desks ( backs ) 


Siding 


Drawers (backs, sides) 


Trim 


Flooring 






TAMARACK 


Boat floors 


Millwork 


Boat stringers 


Moulding 


Boxes 


Planing mill products 


Ceiling 


Ships 


Crates 


Siding 


Finish 


Trim 


Flooring 





Forestry for the Private Owner 



163 



WILLOW 



Baskets 
Berry boxes 
Boat scoops 



Aeroplanes 

Agricultural implements 

Athletic goods 

Boxes 

Car construction 

Caskets 

Coffins 

Clocks 

Crates 

Elevators 

Interior finish 

Fencing (pickets) 

Fixtures 

Flasks 

Flooring 

Furniture 

Gates 

Handles 

Harvesters 

Moulding 

Agricultural implements 

Automobile bodies 

B acking ( pictures ) 

Blinds 

Boat flooring 

Boxes 

Buckets 

Burial boxes 

Ceiling 

Clocks 

Doors 

Elevators 

Feeders 

Flooring 

Foundry flasks 

Frames 

Furniture 

Interior finish 

Kitchen cabinets 



Fruit crates 
Packing cases - 
Vegetable crates 



WHITE OAK 



Musical instruments 

Laundry appliances 

Machine construction 

Patterns 

Picture frames 

Plow beams 

Plow handles 

Plumbers' woodwork 

Pumps (platforms) 

Refrigerators 

Rollers (land) 

Sash 

Ships 

Signs 

Spokes 

Scientific instruments 

Threshing machines 

Vehicles 

Woodenware 



WHITE PINE 



Matches 

Moulding 

Office fixtures 

Passenger cars 

Patterns 

Porch columns 

Pumps 

Refrigerators 

Sash 

Ships 

Siding 

Silos 

Store fixtures 

Tanks 

Threshers 

Trunks (boxes) 

Tubs 

Vehicles 

Woodenware 



YELLOW POPLAR 



Aeroplanes 

Automobile bodies 

Billiard tables 

Boxes 

Buggy bodies 

Brushes 

■Cabinets 



Cars (finish) 

Ceiling 

Chairs 

Cigar boxes 

Drills 

Elevators 

Excelsior 



164 The New York State College of Forestry 

YELLOW POPLAR— {Continued) 

Furniture Pool tables 

Instruments, musical Pumps 

Instruments, professional Refrigerators 

Interior finish Sash 

Merry-go-rounds (horses) Ships 

Packages Vehicles 

Patterns Woodenware 
Plumbers' woodwork 



SAMPLE TIMBER SALE CONTRACT 



AGREEMENT entered into this day of 

between _ -.. of , 

county of _ _ , state of _ :.._ , herein- 
after called the seller, and _.. _ _...., of 

_..._ , county of _ _ state of - , 

hereinafter called the purchaser. 

WITNESSETH: 

Article 1. The seller agrees to sell to the purchaser, upon the terms and 
conditions hereinafter stated, all the living timber, marked or designated 
by the seller, and all the merchantable dead timber, standing or down, 

estimated to be board feet, more or less, on a certain tract 

of land, situated on lot number , township of , 

county of _ _ , state of ...., and 

located on the farm belonging to the seller, and about one mile southeast 
of his farmhouse. 

Article 2. The purchaser agrees to pay the seller the sum of 

dollars ($ - ) per thousand board feet in accord- 
ance with the following schedule of prices: 

White oak $ per M. b. ft. 

Red oak $ per M. b. ft. 

Hard maple $ per M. b. ft. 

Hemlock $ per M. b. ft. 

White pine $ per M. b. ft. 



Article 3. The purchaser further agrees to cut and remove said timber 
in strict accordance with the following conditions: 

1. Unless extension of time is granted, all said timber shall be cut, paid 
for and removed on or before 

2. All timber shall be scaled by the Scribner log rule, and measured at 
the smaller end, along the average diameter inside of the bark. 

3. The maximum scaling length of logs shall be sixteen feet; greater 
length shall be scaled as two or more logs. Upon all logs an additional 
length of four inches shall be allowed for trimming. Logs overrunning this 
allowance shall be scaled not to exceed the next foot in length. 

4. No unmarked timber of any kind shall be cut, except (name species). 

5. Stumps shall be cut so as to cause the least possible waste; stumps 

[165] 



166 The New York State College of Forestry 

of trees up to sixteen inches in diameter not higher than twelve inches above 
the ground and those of trees above this size at a distance above the ground 
not greater than three-fourths of their diameter. 

6. All trees shall be utilized in their tops to the lowest possible diameter 
for commercially salable material. 

7. Young trees shall be protected against unnecessary injury; only dead 
trees and the less valuable kinds may be used for construction purposes in 
connection with lumbering operations. 

8. Care shall be exercised at all times by the purchaser and his .em- 
ployees against the spread of fire, and the purchaser will be held responsible 
for fires starting from logging operations. 

Article 4. It is mutually understood and agreed by and between the 
parties hereto as follows: 

1. All timber included in this agreement shall remain the property of 
the seller until paid for in full. 

2. In case of dispute over the terms of this contract, final decision shall 
rest with a reputable person to be mutually agreed upon by the parties to 
this contract; and in case of further disagreement, with a board of three 
persons, one to be selected by each party to this contract and a third to be 
a State or Government representative. 

In witness wheeeof the parties hereto have hereunto set their 

hands and seals this day of .'. , 

19.... 

Witness : 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




